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Review Article

Ethnomedicinal Uses, Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of Dorema Species (Apiaceae): A Review

Elaheh Zibaee1 , Mohammad Sadegh Amiri2 , Zahra Boghrati1 , Faeghe Farhadi3 , Mahin Ramezani4,5 , Seyed Ahmad Emami1* , Amirhossein Sahebkar6,7,8,9

1Department of Traditional Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
2Department of Biology, Payame Noor University, Tehran, Iran
3Department of Pharmacognosy, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
4Nanotechnology Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
5Pharmaceutical Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
6Halal Research Center of IRI, FDA, Tehran, Iran
7Biotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
8Neurogenic Inflammation Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
9Polish Mother’s Memorial Hospital Research Institute (PMMHRI), Lodz, Poland

Correspondence to:Seyed Ahmad Emami
Department of Traditional Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran Tel: +0985131801267
E-mail: emamia@mums.ac.ir

Received: March 25, 2018; Revised: July 31, 2020; Accepted: August 28, 2020

This is an Open-Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

J Pharmacopuncture 2020; 23(3): 91-123

Published September 30, 2020 https://doi.org/10.3831/KPI.2020.23.3.91

Copyright © The Korean Pharmacopuncture Institute.

Abstract

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The application of antique medical instructions, practices, skills and knowledge has been considered as the most affordable treatment in many developing countries. The use of these preparations and prescriptions over generations has made a useful and valuable guide for drug discovery in modern medicine. Medical herbs have been of a high importance for this purpose. The genus Dorema, of Apiaceae family (Umbelliferae) has a wide use in ethnobotany and traditional medicine around the world. It has been used as a treatment for CNS disease, convulsion, upper respiratory tract problems, gastrointestinal disorder and high blood sugar. Furthermore, phytochemical investigations have reported Dorema species to contain a wide range of constituents including terpenes, coumarins and phenolic compounds. The current review summarizes comprehensive information regarding botany, phytochemistry andpharmacological aspects of Dorema spp.

Keywords

Dorema, phytochemistry, pharmacology

INTRODUCTION

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The genus Dorema D. Don, belongs to the Apiaceae family (Umbelliferae) with important medicinal and aromatic species. It contains a total of 12 accepted species worldwide (http://www.theplantlist.org). Among them 7 are represented in Iran [1]. The genus has been used as a food additive as well as for various medicinal purposes in traditional and folklore medicine around the world [2].

Dorema ammoniacum, commonly known as “Ushaq” or “Vasha”, is considered as one of the most studied species [3]. Being rich in ammoniacum, a medicinal gum-resin, it has been mentioned in Islamic Traditional Medicine (ITM) as a treatment for various disorders, such as gastrointestinal, upper respiratory tract and central nervous systems problems [3-5]. Furthermore, numerous chemical compounds including terpenes, coumarins and phenolic compounds have been isolated from Dorema species and a wide range of pharmacological activities including anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, cytotoxicity, anticonvulsant, anti-diabetic and hypolipidemic activities have been reported from this genus in modern medicine [6].

In the current review we present a comprehensive report on ethnobotanical and traditional uses, phytochemical compounds and pharmacological activities of the genus Dorema.

BOTANY

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1. Botanical description of Dorema spp.

Dorema species are large monocarpic perennial plant, with thickened storage roots, and have large simple umbels with regular flowers, bisexual and staminate, the bisexual on upper branches and the staminate on lower, rarely flowers mixed; Involucre of few caducous leaflets, or lacking; calyx 5-toothed, indistinct; petals are yellow, cream- colored or greenish yellow, nerve darker, ovate- elongate, with inward curved tip; The stigmas are truncate or thickened; stylopodium is flat, fleshy with lobed broadened margin, becoming cup-shaped; ovary is cylindrical, faintly ribbed. Fruit with free carpophore, dorsally piano- compressed, elliptic, with filiform protruding ribs, 2 lateral ribs fusing with unthicken, whitish margin. Geographically, Dorema is distributed in the Caucasus and the southern parts of Central Asia. It also grows in Iran, Afghanistan and Baluchistan. Its northernmost representative (Dorema microcarpum Korovin.) appears in Central Asia, its southern limit lies in Tien Shan. Dorema is typical in arid conditions and most species occur in dry foothills and hills, some grow in deserts.

They are confined to calcareous soils, often mixed with rock debris. One species, Dorema sabulosum Litv. is a typical psammophyte [7, 8]. According to The Plant List, there are 25 scientific plant names of species rank for the genus Dorema, of these 12 are accepted species names (http://www.theplantlist.org). In Iran, the genus Dorema is represented by seven species, namely, D. aitchisonii Korovin ex Pimenov, D. ammoniacum D.Don, D. aucheri Boiss., D. aureum Stocks, D. glabrum Fisch. & C.A. Mey., D. hyrcanum Koso-Pol. and D. kopetdaghense Pimenov which among them D. aucheri Boiss. is endemic to Iran. Dorema kopetdaghensePimenovin Flora Iranica, treated as a synonym of D. hyrcanum Koso-Pol. However, phylogenetic analysis of nrDNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences showed that these two species should be retained as separate species [1, 9, 10]. Table 1 summarizes all synonyms of Dorema species based on the website “TPL” (http://www.theplantlist.org).


2. Threats and conservation priorities

The genus Dorema, contains monocarpic perennial species, so that only once produces flowers during the life cycle and only reproduces through seeds. These plants are potentially endangered and vulnerable taxa [11]. Some of these taxa such as D. aucheri are narrow-range endemics which occur only in a few specialized niches. D. aucheri is considered as a unique endemic species which is intensively collected. Overexploitation of this plant has caused a significant decrease in its population in the area [12]. Furthermore, some others are sub-endemics with threatened species including D. ammoniacum, and D. kopetdaghense. Today, D. kopetdaghense is also considered as endangered in the IUCN Red List of threatened Species [13]. It has been used in traditional medicine from ancient times [2].

Dorema ammoniacum commonly known as “Ushaq” or “Vasha” is one of the most important industrial and medicinal plants of Iran which has been used in ethnobotanical since ancient times. It is endangered due to superfluous and unsustainable harvesting methods [3, 4]. Dorema glabrum is another endangered species that grows in loamy or rocky slopes of Nakhichevan, Autonomous Republic- Azerbaijan, Armenia and Iran [1, 10]. The plant has immense applications as an herbal remedy or food additive in these regions. Over harvesting from wild populations and destructive collecting methods, are considered as serious threats that often lead to disappearance of these taxa, and must be avoided. There is an urgent need for conservation priorities and management strategies for all taxa assigned to a threat category through seed and gene banking, and planting in botanical gardens. Otherwise, we will lose these natural treasures within the next few decades.

PHYTOCHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

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The instrumental analysis was revealed that a range of various compounds were identified in Dorema species, including essential oil structure that made up hydrocarbon molecules and classified as terpenes, alcohols, esters, aldehydes, ketones and phenols, also contain phenolic and coumarin compounds (Table 2). These phytochemicals derived from different parts of Dorema species such as flower, fruit, leaf, stem and root.

ETHNOBOTANICAL USES OF DDorema spp.

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Among 12 species of Dorema, seven have been used in ethnobotany for many decades as a remedy for various human and animal illnesses. These applications of individual Dorema species are shown in Table 3. The most popular species, with the highest number of citations were D. ammoniacum and D. aucheri.


Dorema ammoniacum has been historically reputed in the folk medicine as a natural remedy for a variety of diseases and known as a rich source of a medicinal gum-resin commonly known as ammoniacum or gum ammoniac. The gum-resin is found in cavities in stems, roots and petioles [5]. In Persia, D. ammoniacum (commonly known as Kandal, Vasha and Ushagh.), has a broad spectrum ethnobotanical applications such as anticolic, antifuruncle, expectorant, anthelmintic, emmenagogue agent, anticonvulsant, analgesic, antidote for toxins and laxative. Also, it has been used for treating asthma, bronchitis, stomachache, high blood sugar, infected wounds and infections, acne, abscess, and sciatic pain [6, 35-38].

Western and Indian herbalists recommended it as an antispasmodic, expectorant, diaphoretic and emmenagogue agent and also for treatment of catarrh, asthma, chronic bronchitis and persistent coughing [39, 40].

Jordanian herbalist recommended the usage of the resin of D. ammoniacum as incense and blood sugar reducer [35].

In Afghanistan, herbal medicine has been used under the name of Unani medicine for centuries. In different parts of Kabul, there are numerous Unani or Loqmani pharmacies locally called “Attari” where Hakims are prescribing the flowers of D. ammoniacum for the treatment of diarrhea, peptic ulcer, and other gastric diseases [41].

In Pakistan, D. ammoniacum has been used to treat dysentery and skin diseases by local people particularly in Baluchistan province [42].

In Iranian folk medicine, D. aucheri is used against asthma, bronchitis, parasites of digestive system, constipation, burns and infected wounds young leaves and branches are used for making a locally popular pickle called “Bilhar Pickle” and soups [12, 36, 37, 43].

Based on the folk beliefs of Azerbaijan and Armenian people, Dorema species can treat many abnormalities especially catarrh, bronchitis and diarrhea and also can act as diuretic [44]. Besides, they use D. glabrum for many illnesses especially various types of cancer [23].

In former times, some Dorema species were consumed in the former Soviet Union. The resins of D. hyrcanum were used by the local population as plasters to stop bleeding and to treat injuries in horses. The water extract from the young shoots of D. aitchisonii is used to treat diseases of the stomach [7].

In Uzbekistan, milky latex from the roots of D. sabulosum is used as diuretic and for head and respiratory organs. Tincture from green stem is useful for head and heart diseases [45].

NATURE OF D. ammoniacum DESCRIBED IN ITM

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In all of ITM literatures the Mizaj (temperament) of Dorema is mentioned as hot and dry [50-57]. Avicenna and other ITM scientists believed that Dorema is a purgative (for bile, yellow bile, and phlegm), resolvent (mohallel), desiccant, deobstruent (mofatteh), laxativeand attractive agent [50-57].

Droma ammoniacum has been known as a rich source of ammoniacum or gum ammoniac. This medicinal gum-resin has been described by Dioscorides as following:

“It is also called “agasyllon”, “criotheos”, or “heliastrus”, and the Romans call it “gutta”. Its smell is similar to castor odor with bitter taste.it has a good color, is not woody, without stones, similar to frankincense in little clots, clear and thick, without filth, this type is called “thrausma” and its earthy or stony kind is called “phurama” [51].

USES OF D. ammoniacum IN ITM

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According to ITM texts, D. ammoniacum, D. aucheri and D. aureum are the most usable species with similar effects, so in the following sections, we have only mentioned and categorized D. ammoniacum medicinal activities on target organs according to the text books, listed in Table 4.


1. Liver and spleen

One of the most traditional uses of Dorema is in liver and spleen disorders.

The liniment of D. ammoniacum with vinegar (acetum) on the skin of spleen and liver is an effective remedy for hepatitis, splenitis and sclerosis of liver and stiffness of spleen. Oral administration of this combination has the same effect for mentioned disease. Besides, Dorema has been used for treating liver obstructions [52, 55, 57].

2. Gastrointestinal system

In the most of the investigated ITM books, Dorema spp. has been recommended as an anthelmintic agent against gastrointestinal worms and tinea [52, 54, 55, 57], as a laxative for treating constipation [56] and as a purgative agent for cleansing the stomach from the phlegmatic excreta [53, 58]. In addition, many ITM scientists believed that Dorema spp. treats hemorrhoids and anal disorders because of its deobstuent effect on the rectal veins [54, 57].

3. Upper respiratory tract

The therapeutic properties of Dorema spp. on theupper respiratory tract are paid attention by many scientists in ITM. They described it as a good remedy for orthopnea, dyspnea, diphtheria and specifically asthma. Ibn Nafis Qarashi in his book (Al-Mujaz fi’l-Tibb) recommended that a linctus of Dorema with honey or mucilage of barley is useful for the mentioned diseases, as well as scrofula [55]. This mixture is frequently mentioned in other ITM books such as Makhzan al-Adwiah, Tohfah al-Momeninand etc. [52, 54, 55, 57]. The above mixture was used for purgation of the lungs from phlegmatic humors, too [52, 57].

4. Eyes

In all ITM records, treating ocular problems by Dorema preparations have been reported. A collyrium (kohl) of Dorema was used for improving the thickness of eyelids, treating trachoma, leukoma (opacity of the cornea) ophthalmia and stye [52, 55, 57, 58]. Dorema is an effective remedy for moisturizing roughness of eyelids [52, 55, 58]. In addition, it dries up eye moisture [52, 55, 57].

5. Central nervous systems

Due to descanting effects of Dorema, it was described as a purgation agent to clean the brain from phlegm and other humors [52]. Taking a combination of Dorema with honey or beer is a useful remedy for epilepsy and insensibility (numbness) spasms [52, 57]. Also gurgling a warm watery solution of the plant is suitable for cleaning the brain from waste phlegm and humors, dizziness, paralysis, facial paralysis and vertigo [52].

6. Genitourinary system

Dorema spp. has diuretic and emmenagogic properties, therefore, it has been used as a treatment for dysuria and as an abortifacient agent [52, 54, 55]. Dorema preparations have also been reported to be useful for nephrolith and cystolith [52, 57]. Some ITM scientists have recommended it as a remedy for the hardness of testicles and orchitis as well [52].

7. Skin

Dorema has been described to have the property of improving complexion; Therefore, it was particularly used for vitiligo, melisma and freckles [52, 57]. For this purpose, the herb was applied with olive oil on the affected area. Furthermore, many ITM scientists such as Ibn Nafis Qarshi and Jorjani have mentioned the plant as a cure for various types of wounds, ulcers and specifically scars; as Jorjani has written:” Dorema plaster wears away decayed flesh and regenerates new one” [52, 55, 57].

8. Joints and muscles

There are several records on the traditional use of Dorema spp. for joints. For instance, Jorjani has mentioned it for sciatic nerve pain (sciatica). It is also claimed as a cure for arthralgia and stiffness of joints, particularly when prescribed topically with honey [52, 55].

PHARMACOLOGICAL ASPECTS

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So far, various pharmacological activities have been reported from Dorema spp., includinganti-microbial, anti-bacterial, anti-plasmodial, anti-fungal, cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory, free radical scavenging, hypolipidemic, anticonvulsant and anti-diabetic activities, as well as effects on pituitary gonad axis hormones. These reports have been mentioned in Tables 5 and 6.

CONCLUSION

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Ethnobotanical and traditional medicines are considered as valuable approaches for discovering new medicines because of antiquity medical usage of them over generations. In the current review, the beneficial properties and applications of Dorema spp. Was investigated in ITM books and modern pharmacological studies. The genus Dorema, especially D. ammoniacum known as “ushaq” has been used in folklore and Islamic traditional medicine as a treatment for a wide range of disorders, such as gastrointestinal, upper respiratory tract and central nervous systems’ problems. Besides, many pharmacological activities including anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, cytotoxicity, anticonvulsant, anti-diabetic and hypolipidemic activities have been reported in modern medicine. These species contain various constituents such as terpenes, coumarins and phenolic compounds. However, more studies, particularly clinical trials, are necessary to fill existing gaps in our knowledge of various aspects of these species.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

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This work was supported by grants from Research Affairs of Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

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The authors declare that there are no conflicts od interest.

Tables

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Scientific names and synonyms of reported Dorema species worldwide [according to The Plant List (2013)]

NoDorema species (Accepted names)Synonyms
1D. aitchisonii Korovin ex Pimenov
2D. ammoniacum D.DonD. gummiferum (Jaub. & Spach) K.M.Korol.
D. hirsutum Lofius ex I.G.Borshch.
3D. aucheri Boiss.D. robustum Lofius ex I.G.Borshch.
4D. aureum Stocks
5D. badhysi Pimenov
6D. balchanorum Pimenov
7D. glabrum Fisch. & C.A.Mey.
8D. hyrcanumKoso-Pol.D. gummiferum auct.
9D. karatavienseKorovin
10D. kopetdaghense Pimenov
11D. microcarpum KorovinD. namanganicum K.M. Korol.
12D. sabulosum Litv.D. sabulosum var. borszczowii Litv.

Chemical composition from different parts of Dorema species

Name of compoundStructureSpeciesPlant partRef
Essential oil components
1α-pineneD. ammoniacum
D. aucheri
D. glabrum		Aerial parts
Flower
Stem
Seed
Leaf
Root
Leaves
Aerial parts
Stem
Seed
Aerial parts		[14-18]
[19, 20]
[21]
2campheneD. ammoniacum
D. aucheri		Flower
Stem
Root
Seed
Stem		[14]
[19, 20]
3β-pineneD. ammoniacum
D. aucheri		Flower
Stem
Root
Seed
Stem		[14]
[19, 20]
4β-myrceneD. aucheri
D. glabrum
D. ammoniacum		Seed
Stem
Aerial part
Flower
Stem
Root
Leaves		[19, 20]
[21]
[14, 17, 18]
5p-cymeneD. ammoniacumAerial parts
Flower stem
Root		[14, 15, 18]
6limoneneD. ammoniacum
D. aucheri
D. glabrum		Flower stem
Seed
Root
Leaf
Leaves
Aerial parts
Seed
Stem
Aerial parts		[14, 16, 18]
[19, 20]
[21]
7β-phellandreneD. ammoniacumAerial parts
Root		[15]
81,3,8-p-menthatrieneD. ammoniacumAerial part[22]
9p-mentha-1,8-dieneD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
10(E)-β-ocimeneD. ammoniacum
D. aucheri
D. glabrum		Flower
Stem
Root
Leaves
Aerial parts
Aerial parts		[14, 18]
[19]
[21]
11(Z)-β-ocimeneD. glabrum
D. ammoniacum		Aerial parts
Stem
Leaves		[21]
[18]
12terpinolene (δ-terpinene)D. ammoniacum
D. aucheri		Aerial parts
Flower
Root
Stem
Leaf
Leaves
Aerial parts
Seed
Stem		[14, 15, 17-19]
[19, 20]
13terpinene-4-olD. aucheriAerial part[20]
14thymol methyl etherD. ammoniacum
D. aucheri		Flower stem
Root
Seed
Aerial parts		[14, 16]
[19]
15thymolD. ammoniacum
D. aucheri		Seed
Stem
Aerial part
Seed
Stem		[16]
[20]
16methyl geranateD. aucheriAerial part[19]
17carvacrol methyl etherD. ammoniacum
D. glabrum		Flower
Stem
Root
Root		[14]
[23]
18carvacrolD. aucheri
D. ammoniacum		Stem
Seed
Stem
Seed		[20]
[16]
19methyleugenolD. ammoniacumSeed[16]
20bornyl acetateD. ammoniacum
D. aucheri		Flower
Stem
Root
Leaves
Aerial parts
Seed
Stem		[14, 18]
[19, 20]
21fenchyl acetateD. glabrumAerial parts[21]
22endo-fencholD. ammoniacumLeaf[18]
23α-fenchyl AcetateD. glabrumRoot[23]
24α-cubebeneD. ammoniacum
D. aucheri		Flower
Fruit
Stem
Root
Aerial parts		[14, 22]
[19]
25β-cubebeneD. aucheriAerial parts[20]
26β-elemeneD. aucheriAerial parts[20]
27α-copaeneD. ammoniacum
D. aucheri
D. glabrum		Flower
Fruit
Stem
Seed
Leaves
Root
Aerial parts
Seed
Stem
Root		[14, 16, 22]
[19, 20]
[23]
28β-copaeneD. aucheriAerial parts[22]
29aristoleneD. ammoniacumFlower stem[14]
30β-patchouleneD. aucheriAerial parts[19]
31α-gurjuneneD. ammoniacumFlower stem[14, 16]
32β-gurjuneneD. ammoniacum
D. aucheri		Flower
Stem
Root
Aerial parts
Seed
Stem		[14]
[19, 20]
33β-caryophylleneD. ammoniacum
D. aucheri		Flower stem
Seed
Root
Leaf
Aerial parts
Seed
Stem		[14, 16, 17]
[19, 20, 24]
34caryophylleneD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
35α-santaleneD. aucheriAerial parts[19]
36aromadendreneD. ammoniacum
D. aucheri		Flower stem
Seed
Root
Aerial parts		[14, 16]
[19]
37α-guaieneD. ammoniacumFlower stem
Root		[14]
38benzyl butanoateD. ammoniacumRoot[14]
39α-himachaleneD. ammoniacumFlower stem
Root		[14]
40allo-aromadendreneD. ammoniacumFlower stem
Root		[14]
41dehydroaromadendraneD. ammoniacumFlower stem
Root		[14, 16]
42α-amorpheneD. ammoniacum
D. aucheri		Flower stem
Root
Seed
Stem		[14]
[20]
43δ-amorpheneD. ammoniacumFlower stem
Root		[14]
44β-selineneD. ammoniacum
D. aucheri		Flower stem
Seed
Root
Seed
Stem		[14, 16]
[20]
45α-selineneD. ammoniacum
D. aucheri		Aerial part
Flower
Root
Stem
Seed
Stem		[14, 15]
[20]
46viridifloreneD. aucheriAerial part[19]
47α-muuroleneD. ammoniacum
D. glabrum		Flower, stem
Root
Root		[14]
[23]
48γ-muuroleneD. ammoniacumStem[16]
49cadaleneD. glabrumRoot[23]
50δ-cadineneD. ammoniacum
D. aucheri
D. glabrum		Flower seed
Stem
Aerial parts
Seed
Stem
Root		[14, 16, 17]
[18, 20, 24]
[23]
51γ-cadineneD. aucheri
D. ammoniacum		Aerial parts
Seed
Stem		[19]
[16]
52cadina-1,4-dieneD. aucheriAerial part[19]
53trans-cadina-1(2),4-dieneD. ammoniacumStem[16]
54β-sesquiphellandreneD. ammoniacumSeed[16]
55ledolD. ammoniacumStem[16]
56liguloxideD. ammoniacumFlower
Root
Stem		[14]
57(E)-nerolidolD. ammoniacum
D. glabrum		Flower
Root
Leaf
Stem
Seed
Root		[14, 16, 17]
[23]
583-n-butyl phthalideD. ammoniacumRoot[14]
592-pentylfuranD. glabrumAerial parts[21]
60myristicinD. glabrumAerial parts[21]
61elemicinD. glabrumAerial parts[21]
62methyl heptenoneD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
63trans-sesquisabinene hydrateD. aucheriAerial parts[19]
64γ-eudesmolD. ammoniacum
D. aucheri		Seed
Stem
Aerial parts		[16]
[19]
65α-eudesmolD. ammoniacum
D. aucheri		Seed
Stem
Aerial parts		[16]
[19, 24]
66β-eudesmolD. ammoniacumSeed
Stem		[16]
67sesquicineol-2-oneD. ammoniacumSeed
Stem		[16]
68germacrene D-4-olD. aucheriAerial part[19]
69α-cadinolD. ammoniacum
D. aucheri
D. glabrum		Stem
Seed
Aerial parts
Root		[16]
[19]
[23]
70δ-cadinolD. glabrumRoot[23]
71spathulenolD. ammoniacum
D. aucheri		Fruit
Seed
Stem
Seed
Stem		[16, 22]
[20]
72caryophyllene oxideD. ammoniacum
D. aucheri		Fruit
Seed
Stem
Leaf
Seed
Stem		[16, 17, 22]
[20]
734-methylene-5-hexenalD. ammoniacumStem[18]
746-methyl-5-hepten-2-oneD. ammoniacumStem[18]
75allyl tiglateD. ammoniacumStem[18]
76nerolidyl acetateD. ammoniacumStem[16]
77ammoresinolD. ammoniacumAerial parts[25]
78nonanolD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
79camphorD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
80trans-2-caren-4-olD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
81β-cyclocitralD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
82piperitenone oxideD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
83(E)-2-nonenalD. ammoniacumStem[18]
84β-citronellolD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
85β-damascenoneD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
86cedr-8[15]-eneD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
87cubenolD. aucheri
D. glabrum		Aerial parts
Root		[19]
[23]
88thujopseneD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
89ylangeneD. glabrum
D. aucheri		Aerial parts
Seed
Stem		[21]
[20]
90nerylacetoneD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15, 17]
91geranyl acetoneD. glabrumAerial parts
Root		[21]
[23]
92(E)-tagetoneD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
93(Z)-tagetoneD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
94(Z)-ocimenoneD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
95(E)-ocimenoneD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
96α-bisaboleneD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
97β-bourboneneD. aucheri
D. ammoniacum		Seed
Stem
Fruit		[20]
[22]
98italiceneD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
99di-epi-α-cedreneD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
100α-longipineneD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
101α-cedreneD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
102β-cedreneD. glabrum
D. ammoniacum		Aerial parts
Fruit		[21]
[22]
103β-barbateneD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
104α-humuleneD. aucheri
D. ammoniacum		Aerial parts
Seed
Stem
Fruit		[17, 18]
[22]
105ar-curcumeneD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
106germacrene DD. aucheri
D. ammoniacum		Aerial parts
Stem
Seed
Seed
Stem
Fruit		[17, 18]
[16, 22]
107germacrene BD. aucheri
D. glabrum		Aerial parts
Aerial parts
Root		[19]
[21, 23]
108bicyclogermacreneD. ammoniacumFruit
Seed		[16, 22]
109cupareneD. glabrum
D. aucheri
D. ammoniacum		Aerial parts
Sead
Stem
Fruit		[21]
[20]
[24]
110α-cadineneD. ammoniacumFruit
Stem		[16, 22]
1112-nonanoneD. ammoniacumStem[16]
112(Z)-hexadec-11-enalD. ammoniacumStem[16]
113hexadecanalD. ammoniacumStem[16]
114ethyl linoleateD. ammoniacumStem[16]
115(Z,E)-farnesalD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
116pentadecanalD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
117dodecyl methacrylateD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
11817-octadecenalD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
11913-tetradecenalD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
120tetradecanalD. glabrum
D. ammoniacum		Aerial parts
Stem
Seed		[21]
[16]
121trans-sesquilavandulolD. ammoniacumSeed
Stem		[16]
122neophytadieneD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15, 17]
123neocembrenD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
124(E)-5-undecen-3-yneD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
125(Z)-(E)-farneseneD. ammoniacumAerial parts[22]
126trans-β-farneseneD. ammoniacumSeed[16]
127n-hexadecanoic acidD. ammoniacum
D. aucheri		Aerial parts[15]
[19]
128kopetdaghin AD. kopetdaghenseAerial parts[2, 26]
129kopetdaghin BD. kopetdaghenseAerial parts[26]
130kopetdaghin CD. kopetdaghenseAerial parts[2, 26]
131kopetdaghin DD. kopetdaghenseAerial parts[2, 26]
132kopetdaghin ED. kopetdaghenseAerial parts[2, 26]
133hexadecanD. aucheriAerial parts[21]
134decanolD. ammoniacumStem[18]
135heptadecanoic acidD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
136oleic acidD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
1372,5-dimethyltetrahydrofuranD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
138methylbenzeneD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
139cyclohexane, 1,3-dimethyl, transD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
140valeraldehydeD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
141octaneD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
142imidazole-5-carboxylic acid, 2-aminoD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
143butyl acetateD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
144cyclohexane, 1,2-dimethyl, cisD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
145N,N-dimethyl cyclobutane-1,1-bis(methylamine)D. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
146furfuralD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
147deuteroacetoneD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
148styreneD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
1491-methyldodecylamineD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
150aziridine, 1-(2-buten-2-yl)D. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
151sabineneD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
152decaneD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem
Seed		[17, 18]
153acetamide, 2-chloroD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
1542-butylamineD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
155phenyl acetaldehydeD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
1562-amino-4-hydroxypteridine-6-carboxylic acidD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
157benzenamine, N-methyl-2-(2-propenyl)D. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
158undecaneD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem
Seed		[17, 18]
159limonene oxideD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
160isopropyl isocyanateD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
1612-hexanamine, 4-methylD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
1622,6-dimethyl-4-pyroneD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
163dodecaneD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
1642,4-hexadiene, 3-methylD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
165β-fenchyl alcoholD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
166homarineD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
1672-(N,N-dimethyl hydrazino) cyclohexane carbonitrileD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
168phenol, 4-(2-aminopropyl)D. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
1692-oxo-3-methyl-cis-perhydro-1,3-benzoxazineD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
170trans-carveolD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
171benzene, (2-fluoro-2-methoxycyclopropyl)D. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
1722(1H)-naphthalenone, octahydro-8a-methyl, transD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
173p-methoxyamphetamineD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
1742-cyclohexen-1-one, 2-methyl-5-(1-methylethenyl)D. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
1752-methyl amphetamineD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
1762-methoxy amphetamineD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
177tridecaneD. ammoniacum
D. glabrum		Leaf
Stem
Aerial parts		[17]
[21]
178benzenemethanol, alpha-(1-aminoethyl)D. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
179naphthalene, 1,2-dihydro-1,1,6-trimethylD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
180rimantadineD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
181heptadecaneD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
182calareneD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
1831-[a-(1-adamantyl) benzylidene] thiosemicarbazideD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
184benzenemethanol, 3-hydroxy-alpha-[(methylamino) methyl]D. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
1851 S-cis-calameneneD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
186calameneneD. glabrumRoot[23]
187aptrol (4-Methylamphetamine)D. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
188farnesolD. ammoniacum
D. aucheri		Leaf
Stem
Seed
Seed
Stem		[17, 18]
[20]
189benzenemethanol, 4-hydroxy-alpha-[(methylamino) methyl]D. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
190N-methyl-propylamineD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
191pentadecaneD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
1922-hexanamine, 5-methylD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
193benzenemethanol, 2-(2-aminopropoxy)-3-methylD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
1942-propanamineD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
1952-aminononadecaneD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
196methanimidamide, N,N-dimethyl-N-phenylD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
197methylpent-4-enylamineD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
198cyclobutanolD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
199hexahydro farnesyl acetoneD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
200n-hexylmethylamineD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
201ethylene bromohydrinD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
202didodecyl phthalateD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
2033-propoxyamphetamineD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
204glycine, N-(N-acetyl-L-alanyl) butyl esterD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
2052-propenamideD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
2062-heptanol, 6-amino-2-methylD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
207benzene ethanamine, 4-fluoro-beta,3-dihydroxy-N-methylD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
2081H-Indole-3-ethanamine, 6-fluoro-beta-methylD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
209nonadecaneD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
210eicosaneD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
211cyclotrisiloxane, hexamethylD. ammoniacumLeaf
Stem		[17]
212diglucosyl caffeoyl esterD. glabrumFruit
Seed		[27]
2134-O-β-D-glucopyranosylcaffeic acidD. glabrumFruit
Seed		[27]
214azeroside AD. glabrumRoot[26-28]
215echisosideD. glabrumRoot[26-28]
216pleosideD. glabrumRoot[26-28]
217hyrcanosideD. glabrumRoot[26-28]
218azeroside BD. glabrumRoot[26-28]
2197,8-dihydroferulic acid-4-O-β-D-glucopyranosideD. glabrumRoot[29, 30]
220ferulic acid-4-O-β-D-glucopyranosideD. glabrumRoot[30, 32]
2214-methoxy-6-hydroxyacetophenone-2-O-β-D-gentiobiosideD. hyrcanumRoot[33]
2221(2-Hydroxy-4-methoxy)- 3,7,11- trimethyl-3-vinyl-6(E), 10 dodecadiene- 1- dioneD. hyrcanumRoot[33]
223chlorogenic acidD. glabrumRoot[30]
224cynarinD. glabrumRoot[30]
2254,5-diCQA (4,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid)D. glabrumRoot[30]
2266,7,8-trihydroxycoumarinD. glabrumRoot[30, 34]
2272,3-dihydro-7-methoxy-2S*,3R*-dimethyl-2-[4,8-dimethyl-3(E),7-nonadienyl]-furo[3,2-c]coumarinD. hyrcanumRoot[33]
2282,3-dihydro-7-methoxy-2R*,3R*dimethyl-2-[4,8-dimethyl-2283(E),7-nonadienyl]-furo[3,2-c]coumarinD. hyrcanumRoot[33]
229umbelliferone 7-O-β-D-glucoside (skimmin)D. glabrumFruit
Seed		[27]

Some of the most important ethnobotanical and traditional uses of Dorema species in different countries

NoDorema speciesVernacular nameCountryPart usedEthnobotanical and traditional usesRef
1D. aitchisonii-The former Soviet UnionShootThe water extract from the young shoots is used to treat diseases of the stomach.[7]
2D. ammoniacumKandalIranGum, rootCystitis, digestive, treatment of colic, treatment of furuncles, expectorant, anthelmintic, emmenagogue, anticovulsion[6]
KomaIranResinAntacid, digestive, treatment of colic, furuncles, expectorant, anthelmintic, emmenagogue and anticovulsion[46]
AnghuzehIranLatexAsthma, expectorant, bronchitis, stomachache[37]
AmmoniacumJordanResinIncense, blood sugar reduction[35]
Kama eshterkIranGumHealing infected wound and infection, acne and abscess[36]
Ganda feroozaAfghanistanFlowersTreatment of diarrhea, peptic ulcer and other gastric diseases[41]
OoshiPakistanGumAbortifacient[47]
OshaghIranGumAnalgesic, antidote for toxins, laxative, sciatic pain[38]
Kama eshterkIranGumImprovement of infectious wounds and infection, abscess in sheep and goats[48]
3D. aucheriKalIranLatexAsthma, expectorant, bronchitis, making gum[37]
BilharIranYoung aerial partParasites of digestive system, constipation, use as vegetable, young stems are pickled[12]
Kama, Eshterk, BalhareshterkIranGumHealing infected wound and infection, gasteralgia[36]
Balhar, Kama, eshterkIranGumImprovement of infectious wounds and infection in sheep[48]
ZouIranRootBurn healing, cornicide[43]
4D. aureumOshtorkIranGumAbortion, infection[49]
5D. glabrum-Azerbaijan RepublicGum-resinDiuretic and anti-diarrheal agent as well as for the treatment of bronchitis and catarrh, cure of cancer[15]
6D. hyrcanum-The former Soviet UnionResinAs plasters to stop bleeding and to treat injuries in horses.[7]
7D. sabulosumIlyanUzbekistanRoot and stemRoots used as diuretic and for head and respiratory organs. tincture from green stem used as a remedy for head and heart illnesses.[45]

Major ITM books and their authors that described medicinal properties of Dorema spp.

BookLanguageAuthorLiving period
Al-Qânun fi al-TibbeArabicIbn Sina980-1037 A.D.
Zakhireh khârazmshâhiPersianJorjâni1042-1136 A.D.
Al-Aghrâz al-Tibbe wa al-Mabâhethi al-AlâiiahPersianJorjâni1042-1136 A.D.
Al-Jâmee le Mofradât al-Adwiah wa al-AghziahArabicIbn Al-Baytâr1193-1248 A.D.
Tadhkirat Oli al-Albâb wa al-Jâme le al-Ajb al-UjâbArabicAntaki1535-1599 A.D.
Hadiqat al-Azhâr fi Mâhiyyat al-ushb wa al-uqqârArabicGhasani1547-1611 A.D.
Al-Mujaz fi'l-TibbArabicIbn Nafis Qarshi1213- 1288 A.D.
Tohfah al-MomeninPersianHusseini Tonekaboni17th century
Makhzan al-AdwiahPersianAqili Khorasani18th century

In vitro studies of Dorema spp.

SpeciesPart usedType of extractionActivityTested pathogen/cellResult(s)Ref
D. aucheriGumDichloromethane, methanol extractAnti-microbial activityE. coli, K. pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa, C. albicansMIC: 20 and 40 mg/mL[59]
D. ammoniacumOleogum resinDichloromethane and methanol extractAnti-bacterial and anti-fungalG+ and G–C: 500 and 1000 µg/mL[60]
D. ammoniacumAerial partsMethanol extractAnti-microbial activityS. aureus
Enterococcus sp.
C. albicans
E. coli		MIC:78 µg/mL[61]
D. aucheriAerial partsMethanol extractAnti-microbial and anti-oxidativeB. cereus, S. aureus,
E. coli
S. enterica		MIC: 10-50 mg/mL[62]
D. ammoniacumRipe fruitEssential oilAnti-microbial activityB. subtilis
S. epidermidis		MIC: 3.75 mg/mL[22]
D. aucheriLeafEthanol extractAnti-bacterial activityS. pyogenes
P. aeruginosa		MIC and MBC. 30 and 40 mg/mL[63]
D. aucheriAerial partsHydro-alcoholic extractCytotoxicityArtemia urmiana larve (lethaling brine shrimp)LC50 76.50 ± 0.60 μg/mL[64]
D. kopetdaghenseAerial partsKopetdaghins A, C and EAnti-inflammatory effectJ774A.1 murine macrophagesIC50: 474.1 ± 0.9, 496.4 ± 0.7 and 514.3 ± 0.4 μg/mL[2]
D. aucheriAerial partsWater/ethanol extractAnti-coccidial effectsFecal sampleslowest (1.60) and the highest body weight (1.75) FCR[65]
D. aucheriRootsEtOAc extractNo scavenging, and anti-bacterial activitiesE. coli,
S. flexneri
S. aureus
B. subtilis		MIC: 0.156, E. coliIC50: 113.74 ± 0.21and 597.64 ± 0.33 μg/mL[66]
D. aucheriAerial partsHydroalcoholic and aqueous extractsGenotoxicity evaluationHepG2 cell lineGenotoxic effect: 500 μg/mL[67]
D. glabrumRootn-hexane extractsApoptosis and cell cycle arrestCancer cellsIC50: 6.4,4.6 μg/mL[68]
D. glabrumSeedMethanol extractsApoptotic effectsWEHI-164 cellsApoptosis and antiproliferative properties[69]
D. ammoniacumOleogum resinMethanol extractsCytotoxic effectsSaccaromyces cerevisiaeIC12: 3.14 mg/mL[70]
D. aucheriAerial partMethanol extractsCytotoxic activityHepG2 and A549 cellsIC50: 20.09, 48.65 μg/mL[71]
D. glabrumSeedMethanol extractsCytotoxic effectsWEHI-164 cells, mouse Fibrosarcoma cell line and L929 normal cellsIC50: 50 μg/mL in 36 hours[72]
D. glabrumSeedsMethanol extractGeno/cytotoxicty and apoptoticCAOV-4 cellsIC50: 99.7, 87.3, 70.03 μg/mL at 48 h[73]
D. glabrumRootsEssential oilFree radical scavengingDPPH assayRC50: 2.24 mg/mL[23]
D. glabrumAerial partsMethanol fractionAntioxidantDPPH assayIC50: 53.3 ± 4.7 μg/mL[21]

In vivo studies of Dorema spp.

SpeciesParts usedType of extractionActivityStudy designResult(s)Ref
D. aucheriLeavesHydroalcoholic extractHypolipidemicDiabetic rats model; orally; 200 mg/kg for 4 weeks; a randomized controlled clinical trialUseful in treatment of diabetes, remarkable change in serum lipid profiles[73]
D. hyrcanumRootsMethanol extractAntiplasmodial effectMice model; injection ; 10 mg/mL for 4 days 4-day suppressive test against nicd strain of in miceGood suppression plasmodium berghei infection activity, inhibiting 68.1% of the parasite growth[33]
D. aucheriLeavesEthanol95%HepatotoxicityAlbino mice model; injections; 3.2 mL/kg; three times every 48 hoursInflammation of the liver tissue, cell proliferation, cholestasis, and a great release of liver enzymes[74]
D. aucheriAerial partsEssential oilAnti-diabetic effectPatients with type ii diabetes; randomized clinical trial; 500 mg for 45 daysBiological effects through PPAR-γ activation[24]
D. urmianaAerial partsHydro alcohol extractCytotoxicityLarvae of artemia urmiana; 24 hours; 12 mg rutin/g extractlc50 76.50 ± 0.60 μg/mL potent brine shrimp lethality[64]
D. aucheriLeavesWater/ethanol 95° mixtureAnti-coccidialChickens model; orally; after 22 day of age; 30 mg/kgEffective in control of coccidiosis[65]
D. ammoniacumGumWater extractAnticonvulsant activityMale albino mice model; 700 mg/kg; injectionShowed significant anticonvulsant activity[75]
D. aucheriRootHydroalcoholic extractEffects on pituitary gonad axis hormonesAdult male rat model; orally; 200 mg/kg for 28 daysIncreased lh concentrations[76]

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Article

Review Article

J Pharmacopuncture 2020; 23(3): 91-123

Published online September 30, 2020 https://doi.org/10.3831/KPI.2020.23.3.91

Copyright © The Korean Pharmacopuncture Institute.

Ethnomedicinal Uses, Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of Dorema Species (Apiaceae): A Review

Elaheh Zibaee1 , Mohammad Sadegh Amiri2 , Zahra Boghrati1 , Faeghe Farhadi3 , Mahin Ramezani4,5 , Seyed Ahmad Emami1* , Amirhossein Sahebkar6,7,8,9

1Department of Traditional Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
2Department of Biology, Payame Noor University, Tehran, Iran
3Department of Pharmacognosy, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
4Nanotechnology Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
5Pharmaceutical Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
6Halal Research Center of IRI, FDA, Tehran, Iran
7Biotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
8Neurogenic Inflammation Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
9Polish Mother’s Memorial Hospital Research Institute (PMMHRI), Lodz, Poland

Correspondence to:Seyed Ahmad Emami
Department of Traditional Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran Tel: +0985131801267
E-mail: emamia@mums.ac.ir

Received: March 25, 2018; Revised: July 31, 2020; Accepted: August 28, 2020

This is an Open-Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract

The application of antique medical instructions, practices, skills and knowledge has been considered as the most affordable treatment in many developing countries. The use of these preparations and prescriptions over generations has made a useful and valuable guide for drug discovery in modern medicine. Medical herbs have been of a high importance for this purpose. The genus Dorema, of Apiaceae family (Umbelliferae) has a wide use in ethnobotany and traditional medicine around the world. It has been used as a treatment for CNS disease, convulsion, upper respiratory tract problems, gastrointestinal disorder and high blood sugar. Furthermore, phytochemical investigations have reported Dorema species to contain a wide range of constituents including terpenes, coumarins and phenolic compounds. The current review summarizes comprehensive information regarding botany, phytochemistry andpharmacological aspects of Dorema spp.

Keywords: Dorema, phytochemistry, pharmacology

INTRODUCTION

The genus Dorema D. Don, belongs to the Apiaceae family (Umbelliferae) with important medicinal and aromatic species. It contains a total of 12 accepted species worldwide (http://www.theplantlist.org). Among them 7 are represented in Iran [1]. The genus has been used as a food additive as well as for various medicinal purposes in traditional and folklore medicine around the world [2].

Dorema ammoniacum, commonly known as “Ushaq” or “Vasha”, is considered as one of the most studied species [3]. Being rich in ammoniacum, a medicinal gum-resin, it has been mentioned in Islamic Traditional Medicine (ITM) as a treatment for various disorders, such as gastrointestinal, upper respiratory tract and central nervous systems problems [3-5]. Furthermore, numerous chemical compounds including terpenes, coumarins and phenolic compounds have been isolated from Dorema species and a wide range of pharmacological activities including anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, cytotoxicity, anticonvulsant, anti-diabetic and hypolipidemic activities have been reported from this genus in modern medicine [6].

In the current review we present a comprehensive report on ethnobotanical and traditional uses, phytochemical compounds and pharmacological activities of the genus Dorema.

BOTANY

1. Botanical description of Dorema spp.

Dorema species are large monocarpic perennial plant, with thickened storage roots, and have large simple umbels with regular flowers, bisexual and staminate, the bisexual on upper branches and the staminate on lower, rarely flowers mixed; Involucre of few caducous leaflets, or lacking; calyx 5-toothed, indistinct; petals are yellow, cream- colored or greenish yellow, nerve darker, ovate- elongate, with inward curved tip; The stigmas are truncate or thickened; stylopodium is flat, fleshy with lobed broadened margin, becoming cup-shaped; ovary is cylindrical, faintly ribbed. Fruit with free carpophore, dorsally piano- compressed, elliptic, with filiform protruding ribs, 2 lateral ribs fusing with unthicken, whitish margin. Geographically, Dorema is distributed in the Caucasus and the southern parts of Central Asia. It also grows in Iran, Afghanistan and Baluchistan. Its northernmost representative (Dorema microcarpum Korovin.) appears in Central Asia, its southern limit lies in Tien Shan. Dorema is typical in arid conditions and most species occur in dry foothills and hills, some grow in deserts.

They are confined to calcareous soils, often mixed with rock debris. One species, Dorema sabulosum Litv. is a typical psammophyte [7, 8]. According to The Plant List, there are 25 scientific plant names of species rank for the genus Dorema, of these 12 are accepted species names (http://www.theplantlist.org). In Iran, the genus Dorema is represented by seven species, namely, D. aitchisonii Korovin ex Pimenov, D. ammoniacum D.Don, D. aucheri Boiss., D. aureum Stocks, D. glabrum Fisch. & C.A. Mey., D. hyrcanum Koso-Pol. and D. kopetdaghense Pimenov which among them D. aucheri Boiss. is endemic to Iran. Dorema kopetdaghensePimenovin Flora Iranica, treated as a synonym of D. hyrcanum Koso-Pol. However, phylogenetic analysis of nrDNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences showed that these two species should be retained as separate species [1, 9, 10]. Table 1 summarizes all synonyms of Dorema species based on the website “TPL” (http://www.theplantlist.org).

Table 1

Scientific names and synonyms of reported Dorema species worldwide [according to The Plant List (2013)].

NoDorema species (Accepted names)Synonyms
1D. aitchisonii Korovin ex Pimenov
2D. ammoniacum D.DonD. gummiferum (Jaub. & Spach) K.M.Korol.D. hirsutum Lofius ex I.G.Borshch.
3D. aucheri Boiss.D. robustum Lofius ex I.G.Borshch.
4D. aureum Stocks
5D. badhysi Pimenov
6D. balchanorum Pimenov
7D. glabrum Fisch. & C.A.Mey.
8D. hyrcanumKoso-Pol.D. gummiferum auct.
9D. karatavienseKorovin
10D. kopetdaghense Pimenov
11D. microcarpum KorovinD. namanganicum K.M. Korol.
12D. sabulosum Litv.D. sabulosum var. borszczowii Litv.


2. Threats and conservation priorities

The genus Dorema, contains monocarpic perennial species, so that only once produces flowers during the life cycle and only reproduces through seeds. These plants are potentially endangered and vulnerable taxa [11]. Some of these taxa such as D. aucheri are narrow-range endemics which occur only in a few specialized niches. D. aucheri is considered as a unique endemic species which is intensively collected. Overexploitation of this plant has caused a significant decrease in its population in the area [12]. Furthermore, some others are sub-endemics with threatened species including D. ammoniacum, and D. kopetdaghense. Today, D. kopetdaghense is also considered as endangered in the IUCN Red List of threatened Species [13]. It has been used in traditional medicine from ancient times [2].

Dorema ammoniacum commonly known as “Ushaq” or “Vasha” is one of the most important industrial and medicinal plants of Iran which has been used in ethnobotanical since ancient times. It is endangered due to superfluous and unsustainable harvesting methods [3, 4]. Dorema glabrum is another endangered species that grows in loamy or rocky slopes of Nakhichevan, Autonomous Republic- Azerbaijan, Armenia and Iran [1, 10]. The plant has immense applications as an herbal remedy or food additive in these regions. Over harvesting from wild populations and destructive collecting methods, are considered as serious threats that often lead to disappearance of these taxa, and must be avoided. There is an urgent need for conservation priorities and management strategies for all taxa assigned to a threat category through seed and gene banking, and planting in botanical gardens. Otherwise, we will lose these natural treasures within the next few decades.

PHYTOCHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

The instrumental analysis was revealed that a range of various compounds were identified in Dorema species, including essential oil structure that made up hydrocarbon molecules and classified as terpenes, alcohols, esters, aldehydes, ketones and phenols, also contain phenolic and coumarin compounds (Table 2). These phytochemicals derived from different parts of Dorema species such as flower, fruit, leaf, stem and root.

Table 2

Chemical composition from different parts of Dorema species.

Name of compoundStructureSpeciesPlant partRef
Essential oil components
1α-pineneD. ammoniacumD. aucheriD. glabrumAerial partsFlowerStemSeedLeafRootLeavesAerial partsStemSeedAerial parts[14-18][19, 20][21]
2campheneD. ammoniacumD. aucheriFlowerStemRootSeedStem[14][19, 20]
3β-pineneD. ammoniacumD. aucheriFlowerStemRootSeedStem[14][19, 20]
4β-myrceneD. aucheriD. glabrumD. ammoniacumSeedStemAerial partFlowerStemRootLeaves[19, 20][21][14, 17, 18]
5p-cymeneD. ammoniacumAerial partsFlower stemRoot[14, 15, 18]
6limoneneD. ammoniacumD. aucheriD. glabrumFlower stemSeedRootLeafLeavesAerial partsSeedStemAerial parts[14, 16, 18][19, 20][21]
7β-phellandreneD. ammoniacumAerial partsRoot[15]
81,3,8-p-menthatrieneD. ammoniacumAerial part[22]
9p-mentha-1,8-dieneD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
10(E)-β-ocimeneD. ammoniacumD. aucheriD. glabrumFlowerStemRootLeavesAerial partsAerial parts[14, 18][19][21]
11(Z)-β-ocimeneD. glabrumD. ammoniacumAerial partsStemLeaves[21][18]
12terpinolene (δ-terpinene)D. ammoniacumD. aucheriAerial partsFlowerRootStemLeafLeavesAerial partsSeedStem[14, 15, 17-19][19, 20]
13terpinene-4-olD. aucheriAerial part[20]
14thymol methyl etherD. ammoniacumD. aucheriFlower stemRootSeedAerial parts[14, 16][19]
15thymolD. ammoniacumD. aucheriSeedStemAerial partSeedStem[16][20]
16methyl geranateD. aucheriAerial part[19]
17carvacrol methyl etherD. ammoniacumD. glabrumFlowerStemRootRoot[14][23]
18carvacrolD. aucheriD. ammoniacumStemSeedStemSeed[20][16]
19methyleugenolD. ammoniacumSeed[16]
20bornyl acetateD. ammoniacumD. aucheriFlowerStemRootLeavesAerial partsSeedStem[14, 18][19, 20]
21fenchyl acetateD. glabrumAerial parts[21]
22endo-fencholD. ammoniacumLeaf[18]
23α-fenchyl AcetateD. glabrumRoot[23]
24α-cubebeneD. ammoniacumD. aucheriFlowerFruitStemRootAerial parts[14, 22][19]
25β-cubebeneD. aucheriAerial parts[20]
26β-elemeneD. aucheriAerial parts[20]
27α-copaeneD. ammoniacumD. aucheriD. glabrumFlowerFruitStemSeedLeavesRootAerial partsSeedStemRoot[14, 16, 22][19, 20][23]
28β-copaeneD. aucheriAerial parts[22]
29aristoleneD. ammoniacumFlower stem[14]
30β-patchouleneD. aucheriAerial parts[19]
31α-gurjuneneD. ammoniacumFlower stem[14, 16]
32β-gurjuneneD. ammoniacumD. aucheriFlowerStemRootAerial partsSeedStem[14][19, 20]
33β-caryophylleneD. ammoniacumD. aucheriFlower stemSeedRootLeafAerial partsSeedStem[14, 16, 17][19, 20, 24]
34caryophylleneD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
35α-santaleneD. aucheriAerial parts[19]
36aromadendreneD. ammoniacumD. aucheriFlower stemSeedRootAerial parts[14, 16][19]
37α-guaieneD. ammoniacumFlower stemRoot[14]
38benzyl butanoateD. ammoniacumRoot[14]
39α-himachaleneD. ammoniacumFlower stemRoot[14]
40allo-aromadendreneD. ammoniacumFlower stemRoot[14]
41dehydroaromadendraneD. ammoniacumFlower stemRoot[14, 16]
42α-amorpheneD. ammoniacumD. aucheriFlower stemRootSeedStem[14][20]
43δ-amorpheneD. ammoniacumFlower stemRoot[14]
44β-selineneD. ammoniacumD. aucheriFlower stemSeedRootSeedStem[14, 16][20]
45α-selineneD. ammoniacumD. aucheriAerial partFlowerRootStemSeedStem[14, 15][20]
46viridifloreneD. aucheriAerial part[19]
47α-muuroleneD. ammoniacumD. glabrumFlower, stemRootRoot[14][23]
48γ-muuroleneD. ammoniacumStem[16]
49cadaleneD. glabrumRoot[23]
50δ-cadineneD. ammoniacumD. aucheriD. glabrumFlower seedStemAerial partsSeedStemRoot[14, 16, 17][18, 20, 24][23]
51γ-cadineneD. aucheriD. ammoniacumAerial partsSeedStem[19][16]
52cadina-1,4-dieneD. aucheriAerial part[19]
53trans-cadina-1(2),4-dieneD. ammoniacumStem[16]
54β-sesquiphellandreneD. ammoniacumSeed[16]
55ledolD. ammoniacumStem[16]
56liguloxideD. ammoniacumFlowerRootStem[14]
57(E)-nerolidolD. ammoniacumD. glabrumFlowerRootLeafStemSeedRoot[14, 16, 17][23]
583-n-butyl phthalideD. ammoniacumRoot[14]
592-pentylfuranD. glabrumAerial parts[21]
60myristicinD. glabrumAerial parts[21]
61elemicinD. glabrumAerial parts[21]
62methyl heptenoneD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
63trans-sesquisabinene hydrateD. aucheriAerial parts[19]
64γ-eudesmolD. ammoniacumD. aucheriSeedStemAerial parts[16][19]
65α-eudesmolD. ammoniacumD. aucheriSeedStemAerial parts[16][19, 24]
66β-eudesmolD. ammoniacumSeedStem[16]
67sesquicineol-2-oneD. ammoniacumSeedStem[16]
68germacrene D-4-olD. aucheriAerial part[19]
69α-cadinolD. ammoniacumD. aucheriD. glabrumStemSeedAerial partsRoot[16][19][23]
70δ-cadinolD. glabrumRoot[23]
71spathulenolD. ammoniacumD. aucheriFruitSeedStemSeedStem[16, 22][20]
72caryophyllene oxideD. ammoniacumD. aucheriFruitSeedStemLeafSeedStem[16, 17, 22][20]
734-methylene-5-hexenalD. ammoniacumStem[18]
746-methyl-5-hepten-2-oneD. ammoniacumStem[18]
75allyl tiglateD. ammoniacumStem[18]
76nerolidyl acetateD. ammoniacumStem[16]
77ammoresinolD. ammoniacumAerial parts[25]
78nonanolD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
79camphorD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
80trans-2-caren-4-olD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
81β-cyclocitralD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
82piperitenone oxideD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
83(E)-2-nonenalD. ammoniacumStem[18]
84β-citronellolD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
85β-damascenoneD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
86cedr-8[15]-eneD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
87cubenolD. aucheriD. glabrumAerial partsRoot[19][23]
88thujopseneD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
89ylangeneD. glabrumD. aucheriAerial partsSeedStem[21][20]
90nerylacetoneD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15, 17]
91geranyl acetoneD. glabrumAerial partsRoot[21][23]
92(E)-tagetoneD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
93(Z)-tagetoneD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
94(Z)-ocimenoneD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
95(E)-ocimenoneD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
96α-bisaboleneD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
97β-bourboneneD. aucheriD. ammoniacumSeedStemFruit[20][22]
98italiceneD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
99di-epi-α-cedreneD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
100α-longipineneD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
101α-cedreneD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
102β-cedreneD. glabrumD. ammoniacumAerial partsFruit[21][22]
103β-barbateneD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
104α-humuleneD. aucheriD. ammoniacumAerial partsSeedStemFruit[17, 18][22]
105ar-curcumeneD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
106germacrene DD. aucheriD. ammoniacumAerial partsStemSeedSeedStemFruit[17, 18][16, 22]
107germacrene BD. aucheriD. glabrumAerial partsAerial partsRoot[19][21, 23]
108bicyclogermacreneD. ammoniacumFruitSeed[16, 22]
109cupareneD. glabrumD. aucheriD. ammoniacumAerial partsSeadStemFruit[21][20][24]
110α-cadineneD. ammoniacumFruitStem[16, 22]
1112-nonanoneD. ammoniacumStem[16]
112(Z)-hexadec-11-enalD. ammoniacumStem[16]
113hexadecanalD. ammoniacumStem[16]
114ethyl linoleateD. ammoniacumStem[16]
115(Z,E)-farnesalD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
116pentadecanalD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
117dodecyl methacrylateD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
11817-octadecenalD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
11913-tetradecenalD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
120tetradecanalD. glabrumD. ammoniacumAerial partsStemSeed[21][16]
121trans-sesquilavandulolD. ammoniacumSeedStem[16]
122neophytadieneD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15, 17]
123neocembrenD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
124(E)-5-undecen-3-yneD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
125(Z)-(E)-farneseneD. ammoniacumAerial parts[22]
126trans-β-farneseneD. ammoniacumSeed[16]
127n-hexadecanoic acidD. ammoniacumD. aucheriAerial parts[15][19]
128kopetdaghin AD. kopetdaghenseAerial parts[2, 26]
129kopetdaghin BD. kopetdaghenseAerial parts[26]
130kopetdaghin CD. kopetdaghenseAerial parts[2, 26]
131kopetdaghin DD. kopetdaghenseAerial parts[2, 26]
132kopetdaghin ED. kopetdaghenseAerial parts[2, 26]
133hexadecanD. aucheriAerial parts[21]
134decanolD. ammoniacumStem[18]
135heptadecanoic acidD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
136oleic acidD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
1372,5-dimethyltetrahydrofuranD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
138methylbenzeneD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
139cyclohexane, 1,3-dimethyl, transD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
140valeraldehydeD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
141octaneD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
142imidazole-5-carboxylic acid, 2-aminoD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
143butyl acetateD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
144cyclohexane, 1,2-dimethyl, cisD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
145N,N-dimethyl cyclobutane-1,1-bis(methylamine)D. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
146furfuralD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
147deuteroacetoneD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
148styreneD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
1491-methyldodecylamineD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
150aziridine, 1-(2-buten-2-yl)D. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
151sabineneD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
152decaneD. ammoniacumLeafStemSeed[17, 18]
153acetamide, 2-chloroD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
1542-butylamineD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
155phenyl acetaldehydeD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
1562-amino-4-hydroxypteridine-6-carboxylic acidD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
157benzenamine, N-methyl-2-(2-propenyl)D. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
158undecaneD. ammoniacumLeafStemSeed[17, 18]
159limonene oxideD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
160isopropyl isocyanateD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
1612-hexanamine, 4-methylD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
1622,6-dimethyl-4-pyroneD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
163dodecaneD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
1642,4-hexadiene, 3-methylD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
165β-fenchyl alcoholD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
166homarineD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
1672-(N,N-dimethyl hydrazino) cyclohexane carbonitrileD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
168phenol, 4-(2-aminopropyl)D. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
1692-oxo-3-methyl-cis-perhydro-1,3-benzoxazineD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
170trans-carveolD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
171benzene, (2-fluoro-2-methoxycyclopropyl)D. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
1722(1H)-naphthalenone, octahydro-8a-methyl, transD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
173p-methoxyamphetamineD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
1742-cyclohexen-1-one, 2-methyl-5-(1-methylethenyl)D. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
1752-methyl amphetamineD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
1762-methoxy amphetamineD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
177tridecaneD. ammoniacumD. glabrumLeafStemAerial parts[17][21]
178benzenemethanol, alpha-(1-aminoethyl)D. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
179naphthalene, 1,2-dihydro-1,1,6-trimethylD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
180rimantadineD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
181heptadecaneD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
182calareneD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
1831-[a-(1-adamantyl) benzylidene] thiosemicarbazideD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
184benzenemethanol, 3-hydroxy-alpha-[(methylamino) methyl]D. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
1851 S-cis-calameneneD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
186calameneneD. glabrumRoot[23]
187aptrol (4-Methylamphetamine)D. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
188farnesolD. ammoniacumD. aucheriLeafStemSeedSeedStem[17, 18][20]
189benzenemethanol, 4-hydroxy-alpha-[(methylamino) methyl]D. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
190N-methyl-propylamineD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
191pentadecaneD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
1922-hexanamine, 5-methylD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
193benzenemethanol, 2-(2-aminopropoxy)-3-methylD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
1942-propanamineD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
1952-aminononadecaneD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
196methanimidamide, N,N-dimethyl-N-phenylD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
197methylpent-4-enylamineD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
198cyclobutanolD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
199hexahydro farnesyl acetoneD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
200n-hexylmethylamineD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
201ethylene bromohydrinD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
202didodecyl phthalateD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
2033-propoxyamphetamineD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
204glycine, N-(N-acetyl-L-alanyl) butyl esterD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
2052-propenamideD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
2062-heptanol, 6-amino-2-methylD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
207benzene ethanamine, 4-fluoro-beta,3-dihydroxy-N-methylD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
2081H-Indole-3-ethanamine, 6-fluoro-beta-methylD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
209nonadecaneD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
210eicosaneD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
211cyclotrisiloxane, hexamethylD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
212diglucosyl caffeoyl esterD. glabrumFruitSeed[27]
2134-O-β-D-glucopyranosylcaffeic acidD. glabrumFruitSeed[27]
214azeroside AD. glabrumRoot[26-28]
215echisosideD. glabrumRoot[26-28]
216pleosideD. glabrumRoot[26-28]
217hyrcanosideD. glabrumRoot[26-28]
218azeroside BD. glabrumRoot[26-28]
2197,8-dihydroferulic acid-4-O-β-D-glucopyranosideD. glabrumRoot[29, 30]
220ferulic acid-4-O-β-D-glucopyranosideD. glabrumRoot[30, 32]
2214-methoxy-6-hydroxyacetophenone-2-O-β-D-gentiobiosideD. hyrcanumRoot[33]
2221(2-Hydroxy-4-methoxy)- 3,7,11- trimethyl-3-vinyl-6(E), 10 dodecadiene- 1- dioneD. hyrcanumRoot[33]
223chlorogenic acidD. glabrumRoot[30]
224cynarinD. glabrumRoot[30]
2254,5-diCQA (4,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid)D. glabrumRoot[30]
2266,7,8-trihydroxycoumarinD. glabrumRoot[30, 34]
2272,3-dihydro-7-methoxy-2S*,3R*-dimethyl-2-[4,8-dimethyl-3(E),7-nonadienyl]-furo[3,2-c]coumarinD. hyrcanumRoot[33]
2282,3-dihydro-7-methoxy-2R*,3R*dimethyl-2-[4,8-dimethyl-2283(E),7-nonadienyl]-furo[3,2-c]coumarinD. hyrcanumRoot[33]
229umbelliferone 7-O-β-D-glucoside (skimmin)D. glabrumFruitSeed[27]

ETHNOBOTANICAL USES OF DDorema spp.

Among 12 species of Dorema, seven have been used in ethnobotany for many decades as a remedy for various human and animal illnesses. These applications of individual Dorema species are shown in Table 3. The most popular species, with the highest number of citations were D. ammoniacum and D. aucheri.

Table 3

Some of the most important ethnobotanical and traditional uses of Dorema species in different countries.

NoDorema speciesVernacular nameCountryPart usedEthnobotanical and traditional usesRef
1D. aitchisonii-The former Soviet UnionShootThe water extract from the young shoots is used to treat diseases of the stomach.[7]
2D. ammoniacumKandalIranGum, rootCystitis, digestive, treatment of colic, treatment of furuncles, expectorant, anthelmintic, emmenagogue, anticovulsion[6]
KomaIranResinAntacid, digestive, treatment of colic, furuncles, expectorant, anthelmintic, emmenagogue and anticovulsion[46]
AnghuzehIranLatexAsthma, expectorant, bronchitis, stomachache[37]
AmmoniacumJordanResinIncense, blood sugar reduction[35]
Kama eshterkIranGumHealing infected wound and infection, acne and abscess[36]
Ganda feroozaAfghanistanFlowersTreatment of diarrhea, peptic ulcer and other gastric diseases[41]
OoshiPakistanGumAbortifacient[47]
OshaghIranGumAnalgesic, antidote for toxins, laxative, sciatic pain[38]
Kama eshterkIranGumImprovement of infectious wounds and infection, abscess in sheep and goats[48]
3D. aucheriKalIranLatexAsthma, expectorant, bronchitis, making gum[37]
BilharIranYoung aerial partParasites of digestive system, constipation, use as vegetable, young stems are pickled[12]
Kama, Eshterk, BalhareshterkIranGumHealing infected wound and infection, gasteralgia[36]
Balhar, Kama, eshterkIranGumImprovement of infectious wounds and infection in sheep[48]
ZouIranRootBurn healing, cornicide[43]
4D. aureumOshtorkIranGumAbortion, infection[49]
5D. glabrum-Azerbaijan RepublicGum-resinDiuretic and anti-diarrheal agent as well as for the treatment of bronchitis and catarrh, cure of cancer[15]
6D. hyrcanum-The former Soviet UnionResinAs plasters to stop bleeding and to treat injuries in horses.[7]
7D. sabulosumIlyanUzbekistanRoot and stemRoots used as diuretic and for head and respiratory organs. tincture from green stem used as a remedy for head and heart illnesses.[45]


Dorema ammoniacum has been historically reputed in the folk medicine as a natural remedy for a variety of diseases and known as a rich source of a medicinal gum-resin commonly known as ammoniacum or gum ammoniac. The gum-resin is found in cavities in stems, roots and petioles [5]. In Persia, D. ammoniacum (commonly known as Kandal, Vasha and Ushagh.), has a broad spectrum ethnobotanical applications such as anticolic, antifuruncle, expectorant, anthelmintic, emmenagogue agent, anticonvulsant, analgesic, antidote for toxins and laxative. Also, it has been used for treating asthma, bronchitis, stomachache, high blood sugar, infected wounds and infections, acne, abscess, and sciatic pain [6, 35-38].

Western and Indian herbalists recommended it as an antispasmodic, expectorant, diaphoretic and emmenagogue agent and also for treatment of catarrh, asthma, chronic bronchitis and persistent coughing [39, 40].

Jordanian herbalist recommended the usage of the resin of D. ammoniacum as incense and blood sugar reducer [35].

In Afghanistan, herbal medicine has been used under the name of Unani medicine for centuries. In different parts of Kabul, there are numerous Unani or Loqmani pharmacies locally called “Attari” where Hakims are prescribing the flowers of D. ammoniacum for the treatment of diarrhea, peptic ulcer, and other gastric diseases [41].

In Pakistan, D. ammoniacum has been used to treat dysentery and skin diseases by local people particularly in Baluchistan province [42].

In Iranian folk medicine, D. aucheri is used against asthma, bronchitis, parasites of digestive system, constipation, burns and infected wounds young leaves and branches are used for making a locally popular pickle called “Bilhar Pickle” and soups [12, 36, 37, 43].

Based on the folk beliefs of Azerbaijan and Armenian people, Dorema species can treat many abnormalities especially catarrh, bronchitis and diarrhea and also can act as diuretic [44]. Besides, they use D. glabrum for many illnesses especially various types of cancer [23].

In former times, some Dorema species were consumed in the former Soviet Union. The resins of D. hyrcanum were used by the local population as plasters to stop bleeding and to treat injuries in horses. The water extract from the young shoots of D. aitchisonii is used to treat diseases of the stomach [7].

In Uzbekistan, milky latex from the roots of D. sabulosum is used as diuretic and for head and respiratory organs. Tincture from green stem is useful for head and heart diseases [45].

NATURE OF D. ammoniacum DESCRIBED IN ITM

In all of ITM literatures the Mizaj (temperament) of Dorema is mentioned as hot and dry [50-57]. Avicenna and other ITM scientists believed that Dorema is a purgative (for bile, yellow bile, and phlegm), resolvent (mohallel), desiccant, deobstruent (mofatteh), laxativeand attractive agent [50-57].

Droma ammoniacum has been known as a rich source of ammoniacum or gum ammoniac. This medicinal gum-resin has been described by Dioscorides as following:

“It is also called “agasyllon”, “criotheos”, or “heliastrus”, and the Romans call it “gutta”. Its smell is similar to castor odor with bitter taste.it has a good color, is not woody, without stones, similar to frankincense in little clots, clear and thick, without filth, this type is called “thrausma” and its earthy or stony kind is called “phurama” [51].

USES OF D. ammoniacum IN ITM

According to ITM texts, D. ammoniacum, D. aucheri and D. aureum are the most usable species with similar effects, so in the following sections, we have only mentioned and categorized D. ammoniacum medicinal activities on target organs according to the text books, listed in Table 4.

ArabicIbn Nafis Qarshi1213- 1288 A.D.Tohfah al-MomeninPersianHusseini Tonekaboni17th centuryMakhzan al-AdwiahPersianAqili Khorasani18th century&md=tbl&idx=4' data-target="#file-modal"">Table 4

Major ITM books and their authors that described medicinal properties of Dorema spp..

BookLanguageAuthorLiving period
Al-Qânun fi al-TibbeArabicIbn Sina980-1037 A.D.
Zakhireh khârazmshâhiPersianJorjâni1042-1136 A.D.
Al-Aghrâz al-Tibbe wa al-Mabâhethi al-AlâiiahPersianJorjâni1042-1136 A.D.
Al-Jâmee le Mofradât al-Adwiah wa al-AghziahArabicIbn Al-Baytâr1193-1248 A.D.
Tadhkirat Oli al-Albâb wa al-Jâme le al-Ajb al-UjâbArabicAntaki1535-1599 A.D.
Hadiqat al-Azhâr fi Mâhiyyat al-ushb wa al-uqqârArabicGhasani1547-1611 A.D.
Al-Mujaz fi'l-TibbArabicIbn Nafis Qarshi1213- 1288 A.D.
Tohfah al-MomeninPersianHusseini Tonekaboni17th century
Makhzan al-AdwiahPersianAqili Khorasani18th century


1. Liver and spleen

One of the most traditional uses of Dorema is in liver and spleen disorders.

The liniment of D. ammoniacum with vinegar (acetum) on the skin of spleen and liver is an effective remedy for hepatitis, splenitis and sclerosis of liver and stiffness of spleen. Oral administration of this combination has the same effect for mentioned disease. Besides, Dorema has been used for treating liver obstructions [52, 55, 57].

2. Gastrointestinal system

In the most of the investigated ITM books, Dorema spp. has been recommended as an anthelmintic agent against gastrointestinal worms and tinea [52, 54, 55, 57], as a laxative for treating constipation [56] and as a purgative agent for cleansing the stomach from the phlegmatic excreta [53, 58]. In addition, many ITM scientists believed that Dorema spp. treats hemorrhoids and anal disorders because of its deobstuent effect on the rectal veins [54, 57].

3. Upper respiratory tract

The therapeutic properties of Dorema spp. on theupper respiratory tract are paid attention by many scientists in ITM. They described it as a good remedy for orthopnea, dyspnea, diphtheria and specifically asthma. Ibn Nafis Qarashi in his book (Al-Mujaz fi’l-Tibb) recommended that a linctus of Dorema with honey or mucilage of barley is useful for the mentioned diseases, as well as scrofula [55]. This mixture is frequently mentioned in other ITM books such as Makhzan al-Adwiah, Tohfah al-Momeninand etc. [52, 54, 55, 57]. The above mixture was used for purgation of the lungs from phlegmatic humors, too [52, 57].

4. Eyes

In all ITM records, treating ocular problems by Dorema preparations have been reported. A collyrium (kohl) of Dorema was used for improving the thickness of eyelids, treating trachoma, leukoma (opacity of the cornea) ophthalmia and stye [52, 55, 57, 58]. Dorema is an effective remedy for moisturizing roughness of eyelids [52, 55, 58]. In addition, it dries up eye moisture [52, 55, 57].

5. Central nervous systems

Due to descanting effects of Dorema, it was described as a purgation agent to clean the brain from phlegm and other humors [52]. Taking a combination of Dorema with honey or beer is a useful remedy for epilepsy and insensibility (numbness) spasms [52, 57]. Also gurgling a warm watery solution of the plant is suitable for cleaning the brain from waste phlegm and humors, dizziness, paralysis, facial paralysis and vertigo [52].

6. Genitourinary system

Dorema spp. has diuretic and emmenagogic properties, therefore, it has been used as a treatment for dysuria and as an abortifacient agent [52, 54, 55]. Dorema preparations have also been reported to be useful for nephrolith and cystolith [52, 57]. Some ITM scientists have recommended it as a remedy for the hardness of testicles and orchitis as well [52].

7. Skin

Dorema has been described to have the property of improving complexion; Therefore, it was particularly used for vitiligo, melisma and freckles [52, 57]. For this purpose, the herb was applied with olive oil on the affected area. Furthermore, many ITM scientists such as Ibn Nafis Qarshi and Jorjani have mentioned the plant as a cure for various types of wounds, ulcers and specifically scars; as Jorjani has written:” Dorema plaster wears away decayed flesh and regenerates new one” [52, 55, 57].

8. Joints and muscles

There are several records on the traditional use of Dorema spp. for joints. For instance, Jorjani has mentioned it for sciatic nerve pain (sciatica). It is also claimed as a cure for arthralgia and stiffness of joints, particularly when prescribed topically with honey [52, 55].

PHARMACOLOGICAL ASPECTS

So far, various pharmacological activities have been reported from Dorema spp., includinganti-microbial, anti-bacterial, anti-plasmodial, anti-fungal, cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory, free radical scavenging, hypolipidemic, anticonvulsant and anti-diabetic activities, as well as effects on pituitary gonad axis hormones. These reports have been mentioned in Tables 5 and 6.

Table 5

In vitro studies of Dorema spp..

SpeciesPart usedType of extractionActivityTested pathogen/cellResult(s)Ref
D. aucheriGumDichloromethane, methanol extractAnti-microbial activityE. coli, K. pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa, C. albicansMIC: 20 and 40 mg/mL[59]
D. ammoniacumOleogum resinDichloromethane and methanol extractAnti-bacterial and anti-fungalG+ and G–C: 500 and 1000 µg/mL[60]
D. ammoniacumAerial partsMethanol extractAnti-microbial activityS. aureusEnterococcus sp.C. albicansE. coliMIC:78 µg/mL[61]
D. aucheriAerial partsMethanol extractAnti-microbial and anti-oxidativeB. cereus, S. aureus,E. coliS. entericaMIC: 10-50 mg/mL[62]
D. ammoniacumRipe fruitEssential oilAnti-microbial activityB. subtilisS. epidermidisMIC: 3.75 mg/mL[22]
D. aucheriLeafEthanol extractAnti-bacterial activityS. pyogenesP. aeruginosaMIC and MBC. 30 and 40 mg/mL[63]
D. aucheriAerial partsHydro-alcoholic extractCytotoxicityArtemia urmiana larve (lethaling brine shrimp)LC50 76.50 ± 0.60 μg/mL[64]
D. kopetdaghenseAerial partsKopetdaghins A, C and EAnti-inflammatory effectJ774A.1 murine macrophagesIC50: 474.1 ± 0.9, 496.4 ± 0.7 and 514.3 ± 0.4 μg/mL[2]
D. aucheriAerial partsWater/ethanol extractAnti-coccidial effectsFecal sampleslowest (1.60) and the highest body weight (1.75) FCR[65]
D. aucheriRootsEtOAc extractNo scavenging, and anti-bacterial activitiesE. coli,S. flexneriS. aureusB. subtilisMIC: 0.156, E. coliIC50: 113.74 ± 0.21and 597.64 ± 0.33 μg/mL[66]
D. aucheriAerial partsHydroalcoholic and aqueous extractsGenotoxicity evaluationHepG2 cell lineGenotoxic effect: 500 μg/mL[67]
D. glabrumRootn-hexane extractsApoptosis and cell cycle arrestCancer cellsIC50: 6.4,4.6 μg/mL[68]
D. glabrumSeedMethanol extractsApoptotic effectsWEHI-164 cellsApoptosis and antiproliferative properties[69]
D. ammoniacumOleogum resinMethanol extractsCytotoxic effectsSaccaromyces cerevisiaeIC12: 3.14 mg/mL[70]
D. aucheriAerial partMethanol extractsCytotoxic activityHepG2 and A549 cellsIC50: 20.09, 48.65 μg/mL[71]
D. glabrumSeedMethanol extractsCytotoxic effectsWEHI-164 cells, mouse Fibrosarcoma cell line and L929 normal cellsIC50: 50 μg/mL in 36 hours[72]
D. glabrumSeedsMethanol extractGeno/cytotoxicty and apoptoticCAOV-4 cellsIC50: 99.7, 87.3, 70.03 μg/mL at 48 h[73]
D. glabrumRootsEssential oilFree radical scavengingDPPH assayRC50: 2.24 mg/mL[23]
D. glabrumAerial partsMethanol fractionAntioxidantDPPH assayIC50: 53.3 ± 4.7 μg/mL[21]

Table 6

In vivo studies of Dorema spp..

SpeciesParts usedType of extractionActivityStudy designResult(s)Ref
D. aucheriLeavesHydroalcoholic extractHypolipidemicDiabetic rats model; orally; 200 mg/kg for 4 weeks; a randomized controlled clinical trialUseful in treatment of diabetes, remarkable change in serum lipid profiles[73]
D. hyrcanumRootsMethanol extractAntiplasmodial effectMice model; injection ; 10 mg/mL for 4 days 4-day suppressive test against nicd strain of in miceGood suppression plasmodium berghei infection activity, inhibiting 68.1% of the parasite growth[33]
D. aucheriLeavesEthanol95%HepatotoxicityAlbino mice model; injections; 3.2 mL/kg; three times every 48 hoursInflammation of the liver tissue, cell proliferation, cholestasis, and a great release of liver enzymes[74]
D. aucheriAerial partsEssential oilAnti-diabetic effectPatients with type ii diabetes; randomized clinical trial; 500 mg for 45 daysBiological effects through PPAR-γ activation[24]
D. urmianaAerial partsHydro alcohol extractCytotoxicityLarvae of artemia urmiana; 24 hours; 12 mg rutin/g extractlc50 76.50 ± 0.60 μg/mL potent brine shrimp lethality[64]
D. aucheriLeavesWater/ethanol 95° mixtureAnti-coccidialChickens model; orally; after 22 day of age; 30 mg/kgEffective in control of coccidiosis[65]
D. ammoniacumGumWater extractAnticonvulsant activityMale albino mice model; 700 mg/kg; injectionShowed significant anticonvulsant activity[75]
D. aucheriRootHydroalcoholic extractEffects on pituitary gonad axis hormonesAdult male rat model; orally; 200 mg/kg for 28 daysIncreased lh concentrations[76]

CONCLUSION

Ethnobotanical and traditional medicines are considered as valuable approaches for discovering new medicines because of antiquity medical usage of them over generations. In the current review, the beneficial properties and applications of Dorema spp. Was investigated in ITM books and modern pharmacological studies. The genus Dorema, especially D. ammoniacum known as “ushaq” has been used in folklore and Islamic traditional medicine as a treatment for a wide range of disorders, such as gastrointestinal, upper respiratory tract and central nervous systems’ problems. Besides, many pharmacological activities including anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, cytotoxicity, anticonvulsant, anti-diabetic and hypolipidemic activities have been reported in modern medicine. These species contain various constituents such as terpenes, coumarins and phenolic compounds. However, more studies, particularly clinical trials, are necessary to fill existing gaps in our knowledge of various aspects of these species.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work was supported by grants from Research Affairs of Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that there are no conflicts od interest.

Table 1 . Scientific names and synonyms of reported Dorema species worldwide [according to The Plant List (2013)].

NoDorema species (Accepted names)Synonyms
1D. aitchisonii Korovin ex Pimenov
2D. ammoniacum D.DonD. gummiferum (Jaub. & Spach) K.M.Korol.D. hirsutum Lofius ex I.G.Borshch.
3D. aucheri Boiss.D. robustum Lofius ex I.G.Borshch.
4D. aureum Stocks
5D. badhysi Pimenov
6D. balchanorum Pimenov
7D. glabrum Fisch. & C.A.Mey.
8D. hyrcanumKoso-Pol.D. gummiferum auct.
9D. karatavienseKorovin
10D. kopetdaghense Pimenov
11D. microcarpum KorovinD. namanganicum K.M. Korol.
12D. sabulosum Litv.D. sabulosum var. borszczowii Litv.

Table 2 . Chemical composition from different parts of Dorema species.

Name of compoundStructureSpeciesPlant partRef
Essential oil components
1α-pineneD. ammoniacumD. aucheriD. glabrumAerial partsFlowerStemSeedLeafRootLeavesAerial partsStemSeedAerial parts[14-18][19, 20][21]
2campheneD. ammoniacumD. aucheriFlowerStemRootSeedStem[14][19, 20]
3β-pineneD. ammoniacumD. aucheriFlowerStemRootSeedStem[14][19, 20]
4β-myrceneD. aucheriD. glabrumD. ammoniacumSeedStemAerial partFlowerStemRootLeaves[19, 20][21][14, 17, 18]
5p-cymeneD. ammoniacumAerial partsFlower stemRoot[14, 15, 18]
6limoneneD. ammoniacumD. aucheriD. glabrumFlower stemSeedRootLeafLeavesAerial partsSeedStemAerial parts[14, 16, 18][19, 20][21]
7β-phellandreneD. ammoniacumAerial partsRoot[15]
81,3,8-p-menthatrieneD. ammoniacumAerial part[22]
9p-mentha-1,8-dieneD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
10(E)-β-ocimeneD. ammoniacumD. aucheriD. glabrumFlowerStemRootLeavesAerial partsAerial parts[14, 18][19][21]
11(Z)-β-ocimeneD. glabrumD. ammoniacumAerial partsStemLeaves[21][18]
12terpinolene (δ-terpinene)D. ammoniacumD. aucheriAerial partsFlowerRootStemLeafLeavesAerial partsSeedStem[14, 15, 17-19][19, 20]
13terpinene-4-olD. aucheriAerial part[20]
14thymol methyl etherD. ammoniacumD. aucheriFlower stemRootSeedAerial parts[14, 16][19]
15thymolD. ammoniacumD. aucheriSeedStemAerial partSeedStem[16][20]
16methyl geranateD. aucheriAerial part[19]
17carvacrol methyl etherD. ammoniacumD. glabrumFlowerStemRootRoot[14][23]
18carvacrolD. aucheriD. ammoniacumStemSeedStemSeed[20][16]
19methyleugenolD. ammoniacumSeed[16]
20bornyl acetateD. ammoniacumD. aucheriFlowerStemRootLeavesAerial partsSeedStem[14, 18][19, 20]
21fenchyl acetateD. glabrumAerial parts[21]
22endo-fencholD. ammoniacumLeaf[18]
23α-fenchyl AcetateD. glabrumRoot[23]
24α-cubebeneD. ammoniacumD. aucheriFlowerFruitStemRootAerial parts[14, 22][19]
25β-cubebeneD. aucheriAerial parts[20]
26β-elemeneD. aucheriAerial parts[20]
27α-copaeneD. ammoniacumD. aucheriD. glabrumFlowerFruitStemSeedLeavesRootAerial partsSeedStemRoot[14, 16, 22][19, 20][23]
28β-copaeneD. aucheriAerial parts[22]
29aristoleneD. ammoniacumFlower stem[14]
30β-patchouleneD. aucheriAerial parts[19]
31α-gurjuneneD. ammoniacumFlower stem[14, 16]
32β-gurjuneneD. ammoniacumD. aucheriFlowerStemRootAerial partsSeedStem[14][19, 20]
33β-caryophylleneD. ammoniacumD. aucheriFlower stemSeedRootLeafAerial partsSeedStem[14, 16, 17][19, 20, 24]
34caryophylleneD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
35α-santaleneD. aucheriAerial parts[19]
36aromadendreneD. ammoniacumD. aucheriFlower stemSeedRootAerial parts[14, 16][19]
37α-guaieneD. ammoniacumFlower stemRoot[14]
38benzyl butanoateD. ammoniacumRoot[14]
39α-himachaleneD. ammoniacumFlower stemRoot[14]
40allo-aromadendreneD. ammoniacumFlower stemRoot[14]
41dehydroaromadendraneD. ammoniacumFlower stemRoot[14, 16]
42α-amorpheneD. ammoniacumD. aucheriFlower stemRootSeedStem[14][20]
43δ-amorpheneD. ammoniacumFlower stemRoot[14]
44β-selineneD. ammoniacumD. aucheriFlower stemSeedRootSeedStem[14, 16][20]
45α-selineneD. ammoniacumD. aucheriAerial partFlowerRootStemSeedStem[14, 15][20]
46viridifloreneD. aucheriAerial part[19]
47α-muuroleneD. ammoniacumD. glabrumFlower, stemRootRoot[14][23]
48γ-muuroleneD. ammoniacumStem[16]
49cadaleneD. glabrumRoot[23]
50δ-cadineneD. ammoniacumD. aucheriD. glabrumFlower seedStemAerial partsSeedStemRoot[14, 16, 17][18, 20, 24][23]
51γ-cadineneD. aucheriD. ammoniacumAerial partsSeedStem[19][16]
52cadina-1,4-dieneD. aucheriAerial part[19]
53trans-cadina-1(2),4-dieneD. ammoniacumStem[16]
54β-sesquiphellandreneD. ammoniacumSeed[16]
55ledolD. ammoniacumStem[16]
56liguloxideD. ammoniacumFlowerRootStem[14]
57(E)-nerolidolD. ammoniacumD. glabrumFlowerRootLeafStemSeedRoot[14, 16, 17][23]
583-n-butyl phthalideD. ammoniacumRoot[14]
592-pentylfuranD. glabrumAerial parts[21]
60myristicinD. glabrumAerial parts[21]
61elemicinD. glabrumAerial parts[21]
62methyl heptenoneD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
63trans-sesquisabinene hydrateD. aucheriAerial parts[19]
64γ-eudesmolD. ammoniacumD. aucheriSeedStemAerial parts[16][19]
65α-eudesmolD. ammoniacumD. aucheriSeedStemAerial parts[16][19, 24]
66β-eudesmolD. ammoniacumSeedStem[16]
67sesquicineol-2-oneD. ammoniacumSeedStem[16]
68germacrene D-4-olD. aucheriAerial part[19]
69α-cadinolD. ammoniacumD. aucheriD. glabrumStemSeedAerial partsRoot[16][19][23]
70δ-cadinolD. glabrumRoot[23]
71spathulenolD. ammoniacumD. aucheriFruitSeedStemSeedStem[16, 22][20]
72caryophyllene oxideD. ammoniacumD. aucheriFruitSeedStemLeafSeedStem[16, 17, 22][20]
734-methylene-5-hexenalD. ammoniacumStem[18]
746-methyl-5-hepten-2-oneD. ammoniacumStem[18]
75allyl tiglateD. ammoniacumStem[18]
76nerolidyl acetateD. ammoniacumStem[16]
77ammoresinolD. ammoniacumAerial parts[25]
78nonanolD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
79camphorD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
80trans-2-caren-4-olD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
81β-cyclocitralD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
82piperitenone oxideD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
83(E)-2-nonenalD. ammoniacumStem[18]
84β-citronellolD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
85β-damascenoneD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
86cedr-8[15]-eneD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
87cubenolD. aucheriD. glabrumAerial partsRoot[19][23]
88thujopseneD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
89ylangeneD. glabrumD. aucheriAerial partsSeedStem[21][20]
90nerylacetoneD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15, 17]
91geranyl acetoneD. glabrumAerial partsRoot[21][23]
92(E)-tagetoneD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
93(Z)-tagetoneD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
94(Z)-ocimenoneD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
95(E)-ocimenoneD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
96α-bisaboleneD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
97β-bourboneneD. aucheriD. ammoniacumSeedStemFruit[20][22]
98italiceneD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
99di-epi-α-cedreneD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
100α-longipineneD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
101α-cedreneD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
102β-cedreneD. glabrumD. ammoniacumAerial partsFruit[21][22]
103β-barbateneD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
104α-humuleneD. aucheriD. ammoniacumAerial partsSeedStemFruit[17, 18][22]
105ar-curcumeneD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
106germacrene DD. aucheriD. ammoniacumAerial partsStemSeedSeedStemFruit[17, 18][16, 22]
107germacrene BD. aucheriD. glabrumAerial partsAerial partsRoot[19][21, 23]
108bicyclogermacreneD. ammoniacumFruitSeed[16, 22]
109cupareneD. glabrumD. aucheriD. ammoniacumAerial partsSeadStemFruit[21][20][24]
110α-cadineneD. ammoniacumFruitStem[16, 22]
1112-nonanoneD. ammoniacumStem[16]
112(Z)-hexadec-11-enalD. ammoniacumStem[16]
113hexadecanalD. ammoniacumStem[16]
114ethyl linoleateD. ammoniacumStem[16]
115(Z,E)-farnesalD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
116pentadecanalD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
117dodecyl methacrylateD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
11817-octadecenalD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
11913-tetradecenalD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
120tetradecanalD. glabrumD. ammoniacumAerial partsStemSeed[21][16]
121trans-sesquilavandulolD. ammoniacumSeedStem[16]
122neophytadieneD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15, 17]
123neocembrenD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
124(E)-5-undecen-3-yneD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
125(Z)-(E)-farneseneD. ammoniacumAerial parts[22]
126trans-β-farneseneD. ammoniacumSeed[16]
127n-hexadecanoic acidD. ammoniacumD. aucheriAerial parts[15][19]
128kopetdaghin AD. kopetdaghenseAerial parts[2, 26]
129kopetdaghin BD. kopetdaghenseAerial parts[26]
130kopetdaghin CD. kopetdaghenseAerial parts[2, 26]
131kopetdaghin DD. kopetdaghenseAerial parts[2, 26]
132kopetdaghin ED. kopetdaghenseAerial parts[2, 26]
133hexadecanD. aucheriAerial parts[21]
134decanolD. ammoniacumStem[18]
135heptadecanoic acidD. ammoniacumFruit[22]
136oleic acidD. ammoniacumAerial parts[15]
1372,5-dimethyltetrahydrofuranD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
138methylbenzeneD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
139cyclohexane, 1,3-dimethyl, transD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
140valeraldehydeD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
141octaneD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
142imidazole-5-carboxylic acid, 2-aminoD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
143butyl acetateD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
144cyclohexane, 1,2-dimethyl, cisD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
145N,N-dimethyl cyclobutane-1,1-bis(methylamine)D. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
146furfuralD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
147deuteroacetoneD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
148styreneD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
1491-methyldodecylamineD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
150aziridine, 1-(2-buten-2-yl)D. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
151sabineneD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
152decaneD. ammoniacumLeafStemSeed[17, 18]
153acetamide, 2-chloroD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
1542-butylamineD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
155phenyl acetaldehydeD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
1562-amino-4-hydroxypteridine-6-carboxylic acidD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
157benzenamine, N-methyl-2-(2-propenyl)D. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
158undecaneD. ammoniacumLeafStemSeed[17, 18]
159limonene oxideD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
160isopropyl isocyanateD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
1612-hexanamine, 4-methylD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
1622,6-dimethyl-4-pyroneD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
163dodecaneD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
1642,4-hexadiene, 3-methylD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
165β-fenchyl alcoholD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
166homarineD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
1672-(N,N-dimethyl hydrazino) cyclohexane carbonitrileD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
168phenol, 4-(2-aminopropyl)D. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
1692-oxo-3-methyl-cis-perhydro-1,3-benzoxazineD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
170trans-carveolD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
171benzene, (2-fluoro-2-methoxycyclopropyl)D. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
1722(1H)-naphthalenone, octahydro-8a-methyl, transD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
173p-methoxyamphetamineD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
1742-cyclohexen-1-one, 2-methyl-5-(1-methylethenyl)D. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
1752-methyl amphetamineD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
1762-methoxy amphetamineD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
177tridecaneD. ammoniacumD. glabrumLeafStemAerial parts[17][21]
178benzenemethanol, alpha-(1-aminoethyl)D. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
179naphthalene, 1,2-dihydro-1,1,6-trimethylD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
180rimantadineD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
181heptadecaneD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
182calareneD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
1831-[a-(1-adamantyl) benzylidene] thiosemicarbazideD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
184benzenemethanol, 3-hydroxy-alpha-[(methylamino) methyl]D. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
1851 S-cis-calameneneD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
186calameneneD. glabrumRoot[23]
187aptrol (4-Methylamphetamine)D. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
188farnesolD. ammoniacumD. aucheriLeafStemSeedSeedStem[17, 18][20]
189benzenemethanol, 4-hydroxy-alpha-[(methylamino) methyl]D. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
190N-methyl-propylamineD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
191pentadecaneD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
1922-hexanamine, 5-methylD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
193benzenemethanol, 2-(2-aminopropoxy)-3-methylD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
1942-propanamineD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
1952-aminononadecaneD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
196methanimidamide, N,N-dimethyl-N-phenylD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
197methylpent-4-enylamineD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
198cyclobutanolD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
199hexahydro farnesyl acetoneD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
200n-hexylmethylamineD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
201ethylene bromohydrinD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
202didodecyl phthalateD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
2033-propoxyamphetamineD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
204glycine, N-(N-acetyl-L-alanyl) butyl esterD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
2052-propenamideD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
2062-heptanol, 6-amino-2-methylD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
207benzene ethanamine, 4-fluoro-beta,3-dihydroxy-N-methylD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
2081H-Indole-3-ethanamine, 6-fluoro-beta-methylD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
209nonadecaneD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
210eicosaneD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
211cyclotrisiloxane, hexamethylD. ammoniacumLeafStem[17]
212diglucosyl caffeoyl esterD. glabrumFruitSeed[27]
2134-O-β-D-glucopyranosylcaffeic acidD. glabrumFruitSeed[27]
214azeroside AD. glabrumRoot[26-28]
215echisosideD. glabrumRoot[26-28]
216pleosideD. glabrumRoot[26-28]
217hyrcanosideD. glabrumRoot[26-28]
218azeroside BD. glabrumRoot[26-28]
2197,8-dihydroferulic acid-4-O-β-D-glucopyranosideD. glabrumRoot[29, 30]
220ferulic acid-4-O-β-D-glucopyranosideD. glabrumRoot[30, 32]
2214-methoxy-6-hydroxyacetophenone-2-O-β-D-gentiobiosideD. hyrcanumRoot[33]
2221(2-Hydroxy-4-methoxy)- 3,7,11- trimethyl-3-vinyl-6(E), 10 dodecadiene- 1- dioneD. hyrcanumRoot[33]
223chlorogenic acidD. glabrumRoot[30]
224cynarinD. glabrumRoot[30]
2254,5-diCQA (4,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid)D. glabrumRoot[30]
2266,7,8-trihydroxycoumarinD. glabrumRoot[30, 34]
2272,3-dihydro-7-methoxy-2S*,3R*-dimethyl-2-[4,8-dimethyl-3(E),7-nonadienyl]-furo[3,2-c]coumarinD. hyrcanumRoot[33]
2282,3-dihydro-7-methoxy-2R*,3R*dimethyl-2-[4,8-dimethyl-2283(E),7-nonadienyl]-furo[3,2-c]coumarinD. hyrcanumRoot[33]
229umbelliferone 7-O-β-D-glucoside (skimmin)D. glabrumFruitSeed[27]

Table 3 . Some of the most important ethnobotanical and traditional uses of Dorema species in different countries.

NoDorema speciesVernacular nameCountryPart usedEthnobotanical and traditional usesRef
1D. aitchisonii-The former Soviet UnionShootThe water extract from the young shoots is used to treat diseases of the stomach.[7]
2D. ammoniacumKandalIranGum, rootCystitis, digestive, treatment of colic, treatment of furuncles, expectorant, anthelmintic, emmenagogue, anticovulsion[6]
KomaIranResinAntacid, digestive, treatment of colic, furuncles, expectorant, anthelmintic, emmenagogue and anticovulsion[46]
AnghuzehIranLatexAsthma, expectorant, bronchitis, stomachache[37]
AmmoniacumJordanResinIncense, blood sugar reduction[35]
Kama eshterkIranGumHealing infected wound and infection, acne and abscess[36]
Ganda feroozaAfghanistanFlowersTreatment of diarrhea, peptic ulcer and other gastric diseases[41]
OoshiPakistanGumAbortifacient[47]
OshaghIranGumAnalgesic, antidote for toxins, laxative, sciatic pain[38]
Kama eshterkIranGumImprovement of infectious wounds and infection, abscess in sheep and goats[48]
3D. aucheriKalIranLatexAsthma, expectorant, bronchitis, making gum[37]
BilharIranYoung aerial partParasites of digestive system, constipation, use as vegetable, young stems are pickled[12]
Kama, Eshterk, BalhareshterkIranGumHealing infected wound and infection, gasteralgia[36]
Balhar, Kama, eshterkIranGumImprovement of infectious wounds and infection in sheep[48]
ZouIranRootBurn healing, cornicide[43]
4D. aureumOshtorkIranGumAbortion, infection[49]
5D. glabrum-Azerbaijan RepublicGum-resinDiuretic and anti-diarrheal agent as well as for the treatment of bronchitis and catarrh, cure of cancer[15]
6D. hyrcanum-The former Soviet UnionResinAs plasters to stop bleeding and to treat injuries in horses.[7]
7D. sabulosumIlyanUzbekistanRoot and stemRoots used as diuretic and for head and respiratory organs. tincture from green stem used as a remedy for head and heart illnesses.[45]

Table 4 . Major ITM books and their authors that described medicinal properties of Dorema spp..

BookLanguageAuthorLiving period
Al-Qânun fi al-TibbeArabicIbn Sina980-1037 A.D.
Zakhireh khârazmshâhiPersianJorjâni1042-1136 A.D.
Al-Aghrâz al-Tibbe wa al-Mabâhethi al-AlâiiahPersianJorjâni1042-1136 A.D.
Al-Jâmee le Mofradât al-Adwiah wa al-AghziahArabicIbn Al-Baytâr1193-1248 A.D.
Tadhkirat Oli al-Albâb wa al-Jâme le al-Ajb al-UjâbArabicAntaki1535-1599 A.D.
Hadiqat al-Azhâr fi Mâhiyyat al-ushb wa al-uqqârArabicGhasani1547-1611 A.D.
Al-Mujaz fi'l-TibbArabicIbn Nafis Qarshi1213- 1288 A.D.
Tohfah al-MomeninPersianHusseini Tonekaboni17th century
Makhzan al-AdwiahPersianAqili Khorasani18th century

Table 5 . In vitro studies of Dorema spp..

SpeciesPart usedType of extractionActivityTested pathogen/cellResult(s)Ref
D. aucheriGumDichloromethane, methanol extractAnti-microbial activityE. coli, K. pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa, C. albicansMIC: 20 and 40 mg/mL[59]
D. ammoniacumOleogum resinDichloromethane and methanol extractAnti-bacterial and anti-fungalG+ and G–C: 500 and 1000 µg/mL[60]
D. ammoniacumAerial partsMethanol extractAnti-microbial activityS. aureusEnterococcus sp.C. albicansE. coliMIC:78 µg/mL[61]
D. aucheriAerial partsMethanol extractAnti-microbial and anti-oxidativeB. cereus, S. aureus,E. coliS. entericaMIC: 10-50 mg/mL[62]
D. ammoniacumRipe fruitEssential oilAnti-microbial activityB. subtilisS. epidermidisMIC: 3.75 mg/mL[22]
D. aucheriLeafEthanol extractAnti-bacterial activityS. pyogenesP. aeruginosaMIC and MBC. 30 and 40 mg/mL[63]
D. aucheriAerial partsHydro-alcoholic extractCytotoxicityArtemia urmiana larve (lethaling brine shrimp)LC50 76.50 ± 0.60 μg/mL[64]
D. kopetdaghenseAerial partsKopetdaghins A, C and EAnti-inflammatory effectJ774A.1 murine macrophagesIC50: 474.1 ± 0.9, 496.4 ± 0.7 and 514.3 ± 0.4 μg/mL[2]
D. aucheriAerial partsWater/ethanol extractAnti-coccidial effectsFecal sampleslowest (1.60) and the highest body weight (1.75) FCR[65]
D. aucheriRootsEtOAc extractNo scavenging, and anti-bacterial activitiesE. coli,S. flexneriS. aureusB. subtilisMIC: 0.156, E. coliIC50: 113.74 ± 0.21and 597.64 ± 0.33 μg/mL[66]
D. aucheriAerial partsHydroalcoholic and aqueous extractsGenotoxicity evaluationHepG2 cell lineGenotoxic effect: 500 μg/mL[67]
D. glabrumRootn-hexane extractsApoptosis and cell cycle arrestCancer cellsIC50: 6.4,4.6 μg/mL[68]
D. glabrumSeedMethanol extractsApoptotic effectsWEHI-164 cellsApoptosis and antiproliferative properties[69]
D. ammoniacumOleogum resinMethanol extractsCytotoxic effectsSaccaromyces cerevisiaeIC12: 3.14 mg/mL[70]
D. aucheriAerial partMethanol extractsCytotoxic activityHepG2 and A549 cellsIC50: 20.09, 48.65 μg/mL[71]
D. glabrumSeedMethanol extractsCytotoxic effectsWEHI-164 cells, mouse Fibrosarcoma cell line and L929 normal cellsIC50: 50 μg/mL in 36 hours[72]
D. glabrumSeedsMethanol extractGeno/cytotoxicty and apoptoticCAOV-4 cellsIC50: 99.7, 87.3, 70.03 μg/mL at 48 h[73]
D. glabrumRootsEssential oilFree radical scavengingDPPH assayRC50: 2.24 mg/mL[23]
D. glabrumAerial partsMethanol fractionAntioxidantDPPH assayIC50: 53.3 ± 4.7 μg/mL[21]

Table 6 . In vivo studies of Dorema spp..

SpeciesParts usedType of extractionActivityStudy designResult(s)Ref
D. aucheriLeavesHydroalcoholic extractHypolipidemicDiabetic rats model; orally; 200 mg/kg for 4 weeks; a randomized controlled clinical trialUseful in treatment of diabetes, remarkable change in serum lipid profiles[73]
D. hyrcanumRootsMethanol extractAntiplasmodial effectMice model; injection ; 10 mg/mL for 4 days 4-day suppressive test against nicd strain of in miceGood suppression plasmodium berghei infection activity, inhibiting 68.1% of the parasite growth[33]
D. aucheriLeavesEthanol95%HepatotoxicityAlbino mice model; injections; 3.2 mL/kg; three times every 48 hoursInflammation of the liver tissue, cell proliferation, cholestasis, and a great release of liver enzymes[74]
D. aucheriAerial partsEssential oilAnti-diabetic effectPatients with type ii diabetes; randomized clinical trial; 500 mg for 45 daysBiological effects through PPAR-γ activation[24]
D. urmianaAerial partsHydro alcohol extractCytotoxicityLarvae of artemia urmiana; 24 hours; 12 mg rutin/g extractlc50 76.50 ± 0.60 μg/mL potent brine shrimp lethality[64]
D. aucheriLeavesWater/ethanol 95° mixtureAnti-coccidialChickens model; orally; after 22 day of age; 30 mg/kgEffective in control of coccidiosis[65]
D. ammoniacumGumWater extractAnticonvulsant activityMale albino mice model; 700 mg/kg; injectionShowed significant anticonvulsant activity[75]
D. aucheriRootHydroalcoholic extractEffects on pituitary gonad axis hormonesAdult male rat model; orally; 200 mg/kg for 28 daysIncreased lh concentrations[76]

References

  1. Mozaffarian V. Chapter 54, Umbelliferae. [Flora of Iran]. Tehran: Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands; 2007. p. 368-74. Persian.
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